MR.

AKETCH – A TVET TRAINER 07/09/2019

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSEMS

The subject control system is very important to all engineers. The objective is to free human
operator from boring repetitive tasks that can be done easily and more economically by automatic
control devices.

Control engineering is, then primarily concerned with understanding and controlling natural
resources and forces of nature purposefully and for the benefit of mankind. That is, it is concerned
with the design and development of machines and equipment by which man can utilize power.
Early man relied upon his strength and that of animals to supply energy for doing work; He then
supplemented his energy and that of animals by utilizing power and from natural sources, such
wind for powering windmills for example, and waterfalls for tuning water wheels. By using
simple mechanical devices such as wheels and levers, he accomplished such major tasks as the
building of pyramids and the construction of Roman cities.

Recent developments in large scale integration of semiconductor devices and the resulting
availability of inexpensive microprocessor have made it practical to use computers as integral
part of control systems. This a radical departure from the early machines and equipment used for
control which were manually operated requiring frequent adjustment and resets in order to
maintain and / or achieve desired performance.

System: This is a collection of matter, parts or components which are included inside a specified
boundary.
It is a group of components that are working together in harmony to accomplish a given task.

System is surrounded by boundary which separates it from its surrounding systems which
interfere with its operation. Systems become dynamic when one or more aspects of a system
change with time.

Control: The methods/or techniques to force parameters or variables within an environment of/a
process to have specific values.

Control System: This is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a

manner as to direct, or regulate itself or another system.

It can also be defined as a means by which any quantity of interest in a machine, equipment is
maintained or altered in accordance with desired manner.

A control system is obtained by interconnecting various components in a particular configuration

to provide desired system response or output.

To concisely understand what a control system is, consider the system (process) in the figure
below. The figure depicts a process which under no influence of human operator. Fluid flows
freely at a rate Qin into that tank and out at a flow rate of Qout. .The variable of interest here is level,
H, of the tank. This level will fluctuate depending on the inlet and outlet flow rates. In this case,

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there is no control mechanism in the system but surprising; the system may acquire what is called
self-regulation after sometimes probably a day, a week a month or so.However, for the purpose of
production such systems are not applicable.

FIGURE 1
The objective is to regulate the level of liquid in the tank, h, to the value H.

The objective is to control the height at a specific value the set point Height. The height or level is
called the controlled variable.

Control mechanism can be introduced in this system as follows:

Human aided control
Figure 1.2 shows a modification of the tank system to allow artificial control of the level by a
human. A human. A human. A sight glass S has been added so the human can see what the level
in the tank is compared to the setpoint value H, which has been marked on the tube. In addition, a
valve has been added so the output flow rate can be changed by the human. The output flow rate is
called the manupulated variable

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FIGURE 1.2
A human can regulate the level using a sight tube, S, to compare the level, h, to the
objective, H, and adjust a valve to change the level.
As can be seen from figure1.2, by incorporating, the valve sight glass and human operator,
control mechanism is in essence has been introduced in the system. Here the quantity of
interest being controlled here is level, H.So, we have a control system in place.

A control system provides an output or response for a given input or stimulus. This is shown in
fig. 1.3

Fig. 1.3 Definition of a control system

Exercise
For the system in figure 1.2, design the automated version that replaces the human operator.
Explain its operation

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Solution

Figure 1.4 An automatic level-control system replaces the human by a controller and uses a sensor
to measure level.
* Now you can explain the operation of the system*

CONTROL SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

There are TWO broad classifications of control systems:
i) Open loop control system
ii) Closed loop (Feedback) control system
Open loop Control system
An open loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output.
Another name is feed forward system.

Important features of open loop control system

i) They are simple and less expensive
ii) Easy to built
iii) Their accuracy is determined by the calibration of their elements
iv) They generally not troubled with instability
v) They have slow response to input command changes there by making the system slow

Accuracy of the system depends upon:

i) The accuracy with which the input-output relationship is designed and calibrated.
ii) The performance of the calibration over a long period of time
iii) The varying effects of environmental conditions
Block diagram representation of open loop control system

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Fig. 1.5 Open loop control system block diagram

Where:
R(s) -- Laplace transform of the input variable
G(s)-- Laplace transform of the gain
C(s)-- Laplace transform of the output variable

Transfer function: is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transforms of the output variable to
the Laplace transforms of the input variable under zero initial condition.

Mathematical representation of open loop control systems

𝐶(𝑠)
Transfer function, G(s) =𝑅(𝑠) i.e
C(s) =G(s)R(s)
Closed loop Control system
A closed loop control system is one in which the control action is dependent of the output

Important features of closed loop (feedback) control system

i) They are highly accurate leading faithful reproduction of the input
ii) They are more complex
iii) Non-linearity and distortion are greatly reduced
iv) They have wide bandwidth
v) They suffer from instability problems
vi) Overall gain is reduced
vii) Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of output to input for variations in system
characteristics

Accuracy of the system depends upon:

i) Output measuring device accuracy
ii) Comparing device accuracy
iii) Sensitivity and control element accuracy

Block diagram representation of a closed loop control system

Fig. 1.6 Closed loop control system block diagram. Also called canonical form of
block diagram

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Where:
R(s)---Reference input signal: It may take the forms of sinusoidal, ramp, step, parabolic
etc.
E(s) ---Actuating (Error signal): This is derived from input reference signal and the
feedback signal.
G(s) ---The forward path gain
C(s) ---output signal or controlled variable
H(s) ---Feedback element used to detect measure the output
B(s) ---Feedback signal
Note: Automatic control system can be open loop or closed loop –type of system.

Detailed presentation

Closed loop control system may use one of the following two types of feedback:
i) Positive (regenerative) feedback

ii) Negative (degenerative) feedback

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Fig. 1.7 Types of closed loop control system

Mathematical representation of closed loop control system
Consider Fi.1.7
Transfer function, T(s) of such a system is generally expressed as
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
T(s) =𝑅(𝑠) = 1±𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
Example 1
i) Prove that the transfer function of a canonical form of block diagram of a negative
feedback system is given by
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
T(s) =𝑅(𝑠) = 1+𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
ii) Draw the corresponding open loop block diagram for the system.

Solution
i)

Fig. 1.8Canonical form of block diagram.

Negative feedback system (degenerative)

From the block diagram, it can be seen that

E(s) = R(s) – B(s)
But B(s) = C(s) H(s)
So
E(s) = R(s) – C(s) H(s) --------- (i)
Also
C(s) = E(s) G(s) --------- (ii)
Substituting the value of E(s) in the Eq. (ii) above yields
C(s) = [R(s) – C(s) H(s)] G(s)
C(s) = G(s) R(s) –C(s) G(s) H(s)
Collecting terms with C(s) together yields
C(s) + C(s) G(s) H(s) = G(s) R(s)
C(s) [1 + G(s) H(s)] = G(s) R(s)
Dividing with R(s) on both sides yields

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𝐶(𝑠)
)[1 + G(s) H(s)] = G(s)
𝑅(𝑠)

Again, dividing both sides with [1 + G(s) H(s)] yields

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
) = [proved!]
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝐆(𝐬) 𝐇(𝐬)

ii) The open loop block diagram for the system is

Fig. 1.9Open loop control system

Example 2
i) Prove that the transfer function of a canonical form of block diagram of a positive
feedback system is given by
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
T(s) =𝑅(𝑠) = 1−𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
ii) Draw the corresponding open loop block diagram for the system.

Solution
i)

Fig. 1.10 Canonical form of block diagram.

Positive feedback system (regenerative)

From the block diagram, it can be seen that

E(s) = R(s) + B(s)
But B(s) = C(s) H(s)
So
E(s) = R(s) + C(s) H(s) --------- (i)
Also
C(s) = E(s) G(s) ------ (ii)
Substituting the value of E(s) in the Eq. (ii) above yields
C(s) = [R(s) + C(s) H(s)] G(s)
C(s) = G(s) R(s) +C(s) G(s) H(s)
Collecting terms with C(s) together yields
C(s) - C(s) G(s) H(s) = G(s) R(s)

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C(s) [1 - G(s) H(s)] = G(s) R(s)

Dividing with R(s) on both sides yields
𝐶(𝑠)
)[1 − G(s) H(s)] = G(s)
𝑅(𝑠)

Again, dividing both sides with [1 + G(s) H(s)] yields

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
) = [Proved!]
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏− 𝐆(𝐬) 𝐇(𝐬)

ii) The open loop block diagram for the system is

Fig. 1.11Open loop control system

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Exercise
Figure 2 shows a block diagram of a control system. Derive the following:
C ( s)
i) Closed loop transfer function, ;
R( s )
B( s)
ii) Primary feedback ratio, ;
R( s)
E ( s)
Error ratio, ;
R( s )

Comparison between Open-loop and Closed-loop control systems: It is a control system

where its control action depends on both of its input signal and output response.

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Detailed presentation of closed loop control systems is as follows

The advantages of this type of system are high accuracy, fast response, independence to operation
conditions and flexibility in the system.
The sequence of operation of a closed loop control system is as shown in the figure below.

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Merits of Open-loop Systems

1. Simple and most economical
2. Easy to build
3. Generally, not disturbed with unstable operations.
Demerits of Open-loop Systems
1. Usually inaccurate and unreliable. Hence, they are not preferred.
2. Do not adapt to environmental changes or external disturbances
Merits of Closed-loop Systems
1. Accurate due to feedback, leading to faithful reproduction of the input.
2. Many unnecessary disturbances and noise signals from outside the system can be rejected.
3. The change in the performance of the system due to parameter variations is reduced.
4. The steady-state error of the system can be relatively small
5. The transient behavior of the process can be easily manipulated.
6. The feedback is compared with the desired state in order to take corrective measures.
7. Increased bandwidth(The bandwidth of a system is that range of input frequencies over
which the arguments of the system will respond satisfactorily)
Demerits of Closed-loop Systems
1. The system is complicated by the increased number of components, such as sensors and
error detectors.
2. The overall gain of the system is reduced and must be compensated for in the design.
3. The system may not be stable (it may oscillate or depart greatly from the desired output),
even though the comparable open-loop system is stable.
4. The error detector is necessary in order to compare two states.
5. If there is a change in an Output, it will affect the system input.

Because the advantages of feedback exceed its disadvantages in most cases, feedback has become
the major concept in the design of control system.

Automation Advantages
 Reduction in production time – having a machine that is automated definitely speeds up the
production time since no thinking is needed by the machine, there is better repeatability, and
less human error.
 Increase in accuracy and repeatability (i.e. increased consistency of output)– when an
automated machine is programmed to perform a task over and over again, the accuracy and
repeatability compared to an employee is far greater.
 Less human error – no one is perfect, and we are all prone to making mistakes. Which is
why a machine that performs repeated tasks is less likely to make mistakes than an
employee.
 Less employee costs (i.e. reduced direct human labor costs and expenses) – by adding
automated machines to an operation, means less employees are needed to get the job done.
It also indicates less safety issues, which leads to financial savings. With having less
employees, there are numerous costs that are diminished or reduced such as payroll,
benefits, sick days, etcetera.

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 Increased safety – having automated machines means having less employees who perform
tasks that can be dangerous and prone to injury, which can make the work environment
safer.
 Higher volume production (Increased throughput or productivity) – investing in automated
equipment creates a valuable resource for large production volumes, which in turn, will
increase profitability
 Improved quality or increased predictability of quality
 Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product.

Automation Disadvantages
 Less versatility – by having a machine that can perform a certain task limit to the flexibility
and variety of tasks that an employee could do.
 More pollution – different types of machines operate using motor which may require gases
or chemicals in order to operate. This can cause an increase in pollution in the workplace.
 Large initial investment – automated machines can be one of the costliest operating costs for
a company. With automated machines running anywhere between thousands and millions of
dollars depending on the type and degree of automation.
 Increase in unemployment – by increasing the amount of automation, there are less
employees required causing high unemployment rates.
 Unpredictable costs – there can be several unpredictable costs that may exceed the actual
cost saved by the automation itself. Some of these costs could include research and
development costs of automating a process, preventative maintenance costs, and the cost of
training employees to operate automated machines.

The advantages of industrial automation

There are very clear benefits that the industry sees while using automated systems. These
advantages can be very beneficial in the long run. As a leading precision components
manufacturer in Pune, we assure that our products are one of the best and they are long lasting.

 Increase in productivity: since automation systems are machine based, they do not require to
take when compared to their human counterparts. Also, they are very fast and precise in what they
do and also, they can process a large amount of material in one go, unlike human workers. They
are very fast in their work and hence using automated machines and CNC systems can result in
higher output and productivity.
 Improve redundancy: in this industry, where precision and integrity are necessary for the output,
automated machines provide quality and quantity. They produce products with less errors and they
do not compromise on the production speed for this purpose.
 Better safety: machines can be able to perform in dangerous environments where humans are not
supposed to work, or environments where it is harmful for their health. With automation, there is a
considerable decrease in workplace mishaps and also in accidental deaths of workers in heavy
duty industries.
 Savings and profit: with automated machines, the capital is usually spent on the machine
maintenance and potential savings can be done, since there are no employee wages, medical
claims and also accident insurance to be given.

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Disadvantages:
Automated machines are not suitable for application for almost every condition or situation.
So, they are bound to have some disadvantages in the long run.

 Cannot perform complicated or non-repetitive tasks: one of the main disadvantages of

automated machines is that, since they are programmed, they are only able to do tasks that are
programmed in them and only can do these tasks repeatedly. The machines do not have a mind of
its own, so they cannot do a variety of tasks at a time like their human counterparts.
 They are costly: they have high initial investment: Since, many automated machines use the
latest hardware, software and technology it is a given that these are very expensive and they
require a lot of money and high investment. As a starting manager or a business owner, you will
have to find a way that can allow you to produce such a high investment.
 Require maintenance and training: another disadvantage of automated machines is that they
require high maintenance and for proper usage of the machines workers are required to go through
intense training and should learn how to properly use the machine for high quality results. Having
a god training to the workers assures a good functionality for the machine.

If you are a new person entering in this domain, then it requires a lot of knowledge and experience
to get the machines working and produce best results. As a manufacturer of precision machined
components in Pune, we know how much work goes into these automated machines.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO APPLICATION

Control System can also be classified according to their applications e.g.
i) Servomechanisms
- A control system in which the output or the controlled variable is a mechanical
position or rate of change of mechanical position (motion). There are many
servomechanisms in both military and civilian use.
ii) Sequential Control System
- A control system in which a prescribed set of operations are performed e.g.
 Automatic dishwasher
 Washing machines
The control system in the automatic washing machine performs the following
prescribed operations in sequence: Fill the tub, wash the clothes and spin dry the
clothes. Often a sequence control system is an electromechanical system that uses
relays or solenoids.
iii) Numerical control system
- This acts on numerical information stored on a controlled medium.
iv) Process control system
- This involves the control of dynamic variables in a manufacturing process. The
most commonly controlled variables are: temperature, pressure, liquid level
conductivity, turbidity, PH content and composition

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OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED CONTROL SYSTEMS ILLUSTRATIONS

Open Loop Control Systems Illustrations

Illustration 1.0 Automatic Toaster System

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Illustration 1.1 Traffic flow control system

from an external power source. These relays are adjusted for particular values of time duration and
sequence for the desired traffic flow through a calibrated dial. The settings start glowing

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Illustration 1.2 A DC Servomotor Speed Control System

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speed. This load speed (system output) tends to equal the desired load speed (system input). The
desired speed is not affected by any change in the load speed thereby making input independent of
the output and hence this system is an open loop system.

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Illustration 1.3 A Biological Control System

Illustration 1.4 Position Control System

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CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS ILLUSTRATIONS

Illustration 1.5 Automatic Toaster with Feedback

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Illustration 1.6 Closed Loop Traffic Flow Control System

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Illustration 1.7 Closed Loop Control System Using DC Shunt Servo

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Illustration 1.8 Closed Loop Positioning System

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Illustration 1.9 Controlled Furnace Heating Systems

The figure below shows a control system to heat the furnace to the desired temperature. The
electricenergy is converted to heat energy through a heaterelement which changes the temperature
of the furnace. This temperature is indicated in the thermometer. Human operator notes the
temperature and moves the lever in such a way as to change the heater voltage to change the
furnace temperature to the desired value.Thus, the input of the system is the proper setting of lever
for desired furnace temperature and the system output is the system output in the furnace
temperature. The components are furnace, heater, controlling lever, potentiometer, thermometer,
voltage source and human operator. The

NB: Manipulating input is Heater voltage

Dynamic variable is Heat of the furnace
Measured output is Temperature

This a closed loop system since the output is monitored and the controlling lever adjusted to alter
the manipulating variable.

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Illustration 1.10 Antenna Servo System

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Illustration 1.11 Automatic Tank-level Control systems

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Illustration 1.12 Position Control Systems (Servomechanism)

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Illustration 1.13 Missile Launching and Guidance System

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PURPOSE OF PROCESS CONTROL

5. Reduce the number of personnel in the production line. Robots have been introduced in
this realization.
6. Processes with features that render that it beyond the capability of human operator e.g.
moon or on the bottom of the ocean which the operate in extremes of isolation, areas of
high nuclear radiation, in total darkness, control of high-speed military aircraft,
transcontinental natural gas pipeline (where the degree of complexity of control is
excessive) and where certain control features are too critical to trust human operator)

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To illustrate this further, consider the following the human-aided control system previously
discussed, the

Automated version of this system can be designed as shown in the figure 1.3 below

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Areas of application of control systems

Control Systems have many uses. Some of the places where control systems are used are:-
i) Industrial applications
ii) Domestic applications
iii) Research applications
iv) Defense applications
v) Space technology applications
vi) Metallurgical applications
vii) Agricultural applications
viii) Communication Systems
ix) Aerospace systems
x) Transport Systems
xi) Chemical Process
xii) Nuclear Process
xiii) Biological and Biomedical
xiv) Automation Process
xv) etc.

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