Aldersgate College Mathematics in the Modern World

College of Arts, Sciences and Education

Module 2: Mathematics as a Language

OVERVIEW:
This module introduces the learner to the Mathematical Language and Symbols. It discusses
the language of mathematics, elementary logic: connectives, variables, quantifiers and negations.

Lesson 1: The Language of Mathematics

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
a. Classify the characteristics of mathematical language;
b. Differentiate expressions from sentences;
c. Identify conventions in the mathematical language;
d. Define sets and relations; and
e. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.

Learning Focus:
Language is very powerful. It is used to express our emotions, thoughts and ideas. However, if
the recipient of the message cannot understand you, then there is no communication after all. It is very
important that both of you understand the language. Mathematics is very hard for others to study
because they are overwhelm with the numbers, operations, symbols and formulae. On the other hand,
if one knows how to interpret and understands these things, then the subject will be comprehensible.
Comprehending a message is better understood once a person understand how things are
said and may know why it is said. The use of language in mathematics is far from ordinary speech. It
can be learned but needs a lot of efforts like learning a new dialect or language.

Mathematical Language
Mathematics is a language in itself. Hence, it is useful in communicating important ideas.
Mathematics as a language is clear and objective. Language conventions are necessary in
mathematics for it to be understood by all.
It is the system used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical ideas among
themselves. The language system that uses technical terms and grammatical conventions to
mathematical discourse and is supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for
mathematical formulas.
Symbols- it is used to express formula or to represent a constant.
Syntax – it is used to make the expression well-formed to make the characters and symbols clear and
valid that do not violate the rules.

Expressions versus Sentences

You learned in your English subjects that expressions do not state a complete thought, but
sentences do. Mathematical sentences state a complete thought. On the other hand, mathematical
expressions do not because you cannot test if it is true or false. Furthermore, mathematical expression
is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest.
On the other hand, mathematical sentence is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that

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states a complete thought. A sentence can be (always) true, (always false) or sometimes true/
sometimes false.
Mathematical Expression Mathematical Sentence
26.14 -11 + 7 = 4
5+2 1–4=-3
x +√ 2 1 ∙ x=x

Conventions in the Mathematical Language

The common symbol used for multiplication is x but it can be mistakenly taken as the variable
x. there are instances when the centred dot (∙) is a shortened to be used for multiplication especially
when variables are involved. If there will be no confusion, the symbol may be dropped.
8 ∙ y=8 y
a ∙ b ∙ c=abc
t ∙ s ∙9=9 st
It is conventional to write the number first before the letters. If in case the letters are more than
one, you have to arrange the letters alphabetically. Below are some of the examples of a mathematical
convention.
Mathematical Convention
- It is a fact, name, notation or usage which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians.
Symbol Meaning Example
+ Add 3+7=10
- Subtract 5-2=3
X Multiply 4x3=12
÷ Divide 21÷7=3
/ Divide 3 x2
=3x
π x
pi
∞ a= π r 2
Infinity
= Equals ∞ is endless

≈ Approximately equal to 1+1=2

≠ Not equal to π ≈ 3.14

<, ≤ Less than, less than or equal to π ≠2

>, ≥ Greater than, greater than or equal to 2<3

√ Square root (“radical”) 5>3

√4 =2
x◦ Degrees

∴ therefore 200
a=b∴ b=a

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Example:
If angle A and B are supplementary angles and angle A is 14 times as large as angle B, find
the measures of angle A and angle B.

Characteristics of mathematical language

a. Precise – the use of mathematical symbol is only done based on the meaning and purpose.
ex. + - add x - multiply
- means subtract ÷ - divide
b. Concise – able to say things briefly.
ex. Eight plus two equals ten which means

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8+2=10
c. Powerful – able to express complex thoughts with relative ease.
ex.
1. Find for m
2
25 m +10𝑚+2 =0
2. Simplify the Expression
p p
−
( p−1) ( p+ 1 )

Perform Operations on Mathematical Expressions Correctly

In simplifying mathematical expressions, the following order of operations is one critical point to
observe. Order of operations is the hierarchy of mathematical operations. It is the set of rules that
determines which operations should be done before or after others. Before, we used to have MDAS
that stands for Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction. It was changed to use PEMDAS which
means Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division and Addition and Subtraction. But now,
most scientific calculators follow BODMAS that is Brackets, Order, Division and Multiplication, Addition
and Subtraction.
ORDER OF OPERATIONS
BODMAS OR PEMDAS
BODMAS PEMDAS
B Brackets Parenthesis P
{} ()

O Order Exponents E
2
(or indices) x

DM Division and Multiplication and MD

Multiplication Division

AS Addition and Addition and AS

Subtraction Subtraction

BODMAS OR PEMDAS
Step 1: Do as much as you can to simplify everything inside the parenthesis first.
Step 2: Simplify every exponential number in the numerical expression
Step 3: Multiply and divide whichever comes first, from left to right.
Step 4: Add and subtract whichever comes first, from left to right.

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Examples:
1. Evaluate: ( 11−5 ) x 2−3+1
6 x 2−3+1
12−3+ 1
9+1
10
2. Evaluate: 10 ÷ 2+ 12÷ 2× 3
Solution:
Using the PEMDAS rule, we need to evaluate the division and multiplication before
subtraction and addition. It is recommended that you put in parentheses to remind yourself the
order of operation.
From the given, 10 ÷ 2+ 12÷ 2× 3
(10 ÷ 2)+(12÷ 2 ×3)
5+18
= 23

The Four Basic Concepts of Mathematics

Sets are usually represented by uppercase letters like S. The symbols R and N represents the
set of real numbers and the set of natural numbers, respectively. A lowercase letter near the end of the
alphabet like x, y or z represents an element of the set of real numbers. A lowercase letter near the
middle of the alphabet particularly from i to n may represent an element of the set of integers.

Definition of terms:
Set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects that contains no duplicates. The objects in the set
are called the elements of the set. To describe a set, we use braces {} , and use capital letters to
represent it.
Examples:
1. The books in the shelves in a library.
2. The bank accounts in a bank.
3. The set of natural numbers N = { 1 , 2, 3 , . .. }
4. The integer numbers Z = { . . . ,−3 ,−2 ,−1, 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , .. . }

{ p
5. The rational numbers is the set of quotients of integers Q = : p , q ∈ Z∧q=0 .
q }
The three dots in enumerating the elements of the set are called ellipsis and indicate a continuing
pattern. A finite set contains elements that can be counted and terminates at certain natural number,
otherwise, it if infinite set.

Examples:

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Set A={ 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 ,10 } is an example of a finite set. It is the set of all even natural numbers
less than or equal to 10. The order in which the elements are listed is not relevant: i.e., the set
{ 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 } is also the same as the set {8 , 4 , 2, 10 , 6 } .

Empty set or Null set (∅∨{}¿ – it has no members at all.

Singleton or a Singleton Set – a set with only one member.
- “singleton of a”
Note: Empty set and Singleton set contain only one set.

Equal sets
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements.
Example:
1. { 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 }= {8 , 4 , 2 ,10 , 6 }
2. { 6 , 7 , 7 , 7 ,7 }={ 6 , 7 }
3. { 1 ,3 ,5 , 7 } ≠ {3 , 5 }
Equivalent sets
Two sets are equivalent if they contain the same number of elements.
Example:
1. {a,b,c},{1,4,3},{♠,♣,♥}
Solution: All of the given sets are equivalent. Note that no two of them are equal, but they all have the
same number of elements.

Universal Sets – a set that contains all the elements considered in a particular situation and denoted by
U.
Example
a. Suppose we list the digits only
Then, U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}, since U includes all the digits.
b. Suppose we consider the whole numbers.
Then U = {0,1,2,3,. . . } since U contains all whole numbers.

Subsets
A set A is called a subset of set B if every element of A is also an element of B. “ A is a subset
of B is written as A ⊆B . A set contains the elements of a larger set.
Example:
1. A is a subset of B – A={7,9} is a subset of B = {6,9,7}
2. D = {10,8,6} is a subset of G = {10,8,6}

Proper Subsets- it is a subset that is not equal to the original set.

Improper Subsets – It is a subset that is equal to the original set.
Example:
Given C = {3,5,7}, then the proper subsets are { }, { 5,7 } , { 3,5 },{ 3,7 }
the improper subset is { 3,5,7 }
Cardinality of the Set
- It is a number of distinct elements belonging to a finite set. It is also called the cardinal
number of the set A denoted by n(A) or card(A) and ⃒ A ⃒ .
Power Set

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- It is the family of all subsets of A denoted by Power (A).

Example:
Given set A = { x , y } , the Power (A) = { ∅ },{ x },{ y },{ x , y } or { x⃒ xis a subet of A }
Specification of Sets
There are three main ways to specify a set:

1. List Notation/ Roster Method

- List names of elements of a set, separate them by commas and enclose them in braces.
Example:
a. { 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 }
b. { George Washington , Bill Clinton }
c. { a , b , d , m }
d. Three - dot abbreviation : {1 , 2 ,. . . ,100 }

2. Predicate Notation/ Rule Method/ Set – Builder Notation

- By stating a property of its elements. It has a property that the members of the set share (a
condition or a predicate which holds for members of this set).
a. { x / x is a natural number∧x <8 } means “the set of all x such that x is a natural number and is
less than 8”
b. { x / x is a letter of Russianalphabet }
c. { y / y is a student of UMass∧ y is older than 25 }
3. Recursive Rules
- By defining a set of rules which generates or defines its members.
Example:
1. The set of E of even numbers greater than 3:
a. 4 ∈ E
b. If x ∈ E , then x +2∈ E
c. Nothing else belongs to E

Operation on Sets
Union
- It is a combination of all the elements of the given sets.
- It is an operation for sets A and B in which a set is formed that consists of all the elements
included in A or B or both denoted by U as A ∪ B
Example:
Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,}
A = {1, 3, 5, 7} C = { 1, 2 }
B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Find the following:
a. A ∪B= {1 , 3 ,5 , 7 } ∪ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 4, 6, 8}
b. A ∪ C={ 1 ,3 , 5 , 7 } ∪ { 1 , 2 }={1 , 2, 3 , 5 ,7 }
c. B∪C= {2 , 4 , 6 , 8 } ∪ {1 , 2 }={ 1 , 2, 4 , 6 , 8 }

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Intersection
- It is the set containing all elements common to both A and B, denoted by ∩ or A ∩ B.
Example:
Given U = { a, b, c, d, e}
A = { c, d, e} B = { a, c, e} and C = { a } and D = { e}.
Find the following intersections of sets:
a. B ∩ C = { a, c, e} ∩ { a } = { a }
b. A∩ C = { c, d, e} ∩ { a } = empty set or {}
c. (A∩B)∩D
= ( {c , d , e } ∩{a ,c , e }) ∩{e }
= ( {c , e }) ∩{e }
={e }
Complementation
- It is an operation on a set that must be performed in reference to a universal set, denoted by
A’.
Example:
Given U={ a , b , c , d , e }, A={ c , d ,e }, find A’.
Solution:
A’ = { a , b }

Relations:

Relation
- A relation is a rule that pairs each element in one set, called the domain, with one or more
elements from a second set called range. It creates a set of ordered pairs.
- one- to – one and one – to – many relation
Examples:
One - to – one relationship
1. Given:
Regular holidays in the Philippines Month and Date
1. New Year’s Day January 1
2. Labor Day May 1
3. Independence Day June 12
4. Bonifacio Day November 30
5. Rizal Day December 30

A clearer way to express a relation is to form a set of ordered pairs:

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{( New Year’s Day, January 1),(Labor Day, May 1), (Independence Day, June 12), (Bonifacio Day,
November 30), (Rizal Day, December 30)}. This set describes a Relation since it has a one – to – one
relationship.
2. { ( 1, 4), ( 2, 5), ( 3, 6) } is a relation. The domain of a relation is the set { 1, 2, 3 } and the range
is { 4, 5,6 }.
3. { ( 2, 3), ( 4, 5) } is not a relation but just a set of ordered pairs.
One – to – Many relationship
Given:
Let A = { 2, 4, } and B = { 1, 3, 5 }.
a. R = { ( 2, 1), ( 4, 3), ( 4, 5)}

Function
It is a rule that pairs each element in one set, called the domain, with exactly one element from
a second set, called the range. This means that for each first coordinate, there is exactly one second
coordinate or for every first element of x, there corresponds a unique second element y.
- f (x) is a classic way of writing a functions.
- one- to- one correspondence and many – to – one correspondence
Three main parts:
 the input
 the relationship
 the output
Example 1: “Multiply by 2” is a very simple function.
Here are the three parts:
Input (x) Relationship (2x) Output (f(x))
0 x2 0
1 x2 2

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7 x2 14
10 x2 20

Example 2: with f(x) = x2

 an input of 4
 becomes an output of 16
 in fact we can write f(4) = 16 X Y
X:x Y: x2
3 9
3
1 1 9
0 0 1
1
4 16 0
0
-4 16
4
16
-4
. . . etc.
. . . etc.

Remember:
A one – to – one correspondence and many – to – one correspondence are called functions
while one – to – many correspondence is not.
Examples: The function can be represented using the following:
1. Table:
The perimeter of a square is four times the length of its side. P = 4s

Side (S): 1 3 5 7 9
Perimeter (P): 4 12 20 28 36

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2. Ordered Pairs:
{(1, 4), ( 3, 12), ( 5, 20), ( 7, 28), ( 9, 36)}

3. Mapping:
Domain (x) Range (y)

1
4
3
12
5
20
7
28
9
36

4. Graphing

Vertical Line Test

 On a graph, the idea
of single valued
means that no vertical
line ever crosses more
than one value.
 If it crosses more than
once it is still a valid
curve, but is not a
function.
Remember:

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- Y is a function of X if it passes the Vertical Line Test.

Graph of a relations and functions:

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Binary operation
A unary operation is for single number and assigns another number to it. Addition (+),
subtraction(- ), multiplication( x ), and division (÷) are examples of binary operations. The word “ binary”
means composition of two pieces. A binary operation refers to joining two values to create a new one. It
assigns to each pair of numbers of a set another number of the set.
Study the following properties of addition and multiplication, as binary operations, on the set of
real numbers.
I. Closure Property
Addition: The sum of any two real numbers is also a real number.
Example: 12 + 34 = 46
Multiplication: The product of any two real numbers is also a real number.
Example: 7 x 20 = 140
II. Commutative Property
Addition: For any two real numbers x∧ y , x+ y = y + x
Example: a. 5 + 7 = 7 + 5 b. 8 m+7 n=7 n+8 m
12 = 12
Multiplication: The product of any two real numbers is also a real number.
Example: a . 5 x 7=7 x 5 b. (12 a)(17 b)=(17 b)(12 a)
35 = 35

III. Associative Property

Addition: For any two real numbers x , y ∧z , x+ ( y+ z )=( x+ y )+ z
Example: 3+ ( 10+ 9 )=( 3+10 )+ 9
3+19=13+9
22=22
Multiplication: For any two real numbers x , y ∧z , x ∙ ( y ∙ z )=( x ∙ y ) ∙ z
Example: a . 3 ∙ ( 9∙ 6 ) =( 3∙ 9 ) ∙ 6
3 ∙ (54 )=( 27 ) ∙ 6
162=162
: b .( 42 c )∙ ( 16 a b )=( 16 a b ) ∙( 42 c )
3 2 5 2 5 3

IV. Identity Property

Addition: For any real number x , x +0=x .The number “ 0” is called the additive identity.
Example: 78 + 0 = 78
Multiplication: For any real number x , x ∙1= x . The number “1” is called the multiplicative identity.
Example: 98 ∙ 1=98

Using the identity property, we may write an equivalent expression of mathematical expression
by substituting an expression that is equal to the additive identity or multiplicative identity.
Example:
3c 7
1. Write an equivalent expression of by multiplying instead of 1.
5 7
3c 3c
Solution: = ∙1
5 5
3c 7
= ∙
5 7

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21c
¿
35
21 c 3c
Therefore, and are equivalent expressions.
35 5
2. Write an equivalent expression of 9 j2 −5 by adding (2 m−2 m) instead of 0.
2 2
Solution: 9 j −5=9 j −5+0
¿ 9 j 2−5+(2 m−2 m)
¿ 9 j 2 +2 m−5−2m
Therefore, 9 j2 −5∧9 j 2+2 m−5−2 m are equivalent expressions.

V. Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition

For any two real numbers x , y ∧z , x ( y + z )=xy + xz
Example:
1. a (−x + y−z ) =−ax +ay−az
2. −5 ( 7 i+ 8 m+ 9 n )=−35 i−40 m−45 n
3. m ( v i−v f )=mv i−mv f

VI. Inverses of Binary Operations

Addition: For any real number x , x + (−x )=0
Example: 100 + (-100) = 0
1
Multiplication: For any real number, x , x ∙ =1
x
Example: 98 ∙ 1=98

Learning Activity:

Activity 8: (25 points)

A. Classify each given as a mathematical expression (E) or mathematical sentence (S).

1. a+ 9

t
2.
100
3. 3.1416
4. x + y= y + x

B. For each of the following expressions, write each in the most conventional way.

1. √3∙ x
2. z ∙ y ∙5
3. 8∙ y∙ x
2 4 2
4. c ∙ a ∙b ∙ 3
10 6
5. 11 ∙ z ∙ t ∙ y

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C. What is most conventional way to write 5 ∙11 ? Justify your answer. (5 points)

Answer:

D. Below are examples of a function. Each item is labelled as a function or mere relation.
Represent each item correctly depending on the labels by either drawing arrows or writing
ordered pairs. (10 points)
Example:

a.
Letter Number
W -2
O -1
R 0
L 1
D 2
FUNCTION:

b.
Letter Number
W -2
O -1
R 0
L 1
D 2
MERE RELATION:

Activity 9: Solve for the following problems with your complete solutions.
1. You have no car, but in need of a car next week. Your pal, Peter, is too busy with work and
study to go out, and so he can lend you his car Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. Your pal
Mary is crazy busy at the beginning of the week, but she has plans for the rest, so he can allow
you to use her car Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. Peter will allow you to use his car those
3 days, and Mary will let you drive her car those 3 days, how many days do you have covered?
2. Let A = { 0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 }, B = { 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 } and C = { 0 , 3 , 6 , 9 }. What are
a. A ∪B ∪C and b. A ∩ B∩ C
3. Find the Union, Intersection and the difference ( A – B) of the following pairs of sets.

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A = the set of all letters of the word FEAST.

B = the set of all letters of the word TASTE
a. Union
b. Intersection
c. Difference (A – B)

Activity 10:
A. Solve the given problems using the PEMDAS or BODMAS rule in solving with your complete
solutions. (20 points)
a. 135 + 2 ⦋ (−3+5)2 + (10 – 5)2] ÷ 4 + 8

b. ⦋ (5 – 2)2 + (28 – 40) ] + 49

B. Make a compilation of at least 2 short bond papers of the different mathematical symbols and
notations and their meanings.

Lesson 2: Mathematical Logic

Lesson 2A: Elementary Logic: Connective, Variables, Quantifiers and Negations

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Define simple statement and compound statement;
b. Write compound statements using connectives;
c. Express simple and compound statements symbolically; and
d. Write the negation of a quantified statement.
Learning Focus:
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to discriminate correct from incorrect
reasoning. As tertiary students, you must know how to reason out logically and test the validity of an
argument about any matter. You will learn about connectives, quantifiers, negations and variables
which are essentials to modern logic and its symbolic language.
According to David W. Kueker (2009), logic is simply defined as the analysis of methods of
reasoning. In studying these methods, logic is interested in the form rather than the content of the
argument. Mathematical logic is, at least in its origins, the study of reasoning as used in mathematics.
Mathematical reasoning is deductive – that is, it consists of drawing (correct) conclusions from given
hypothesis. Thus the basic concept is that of a statement being a logical consequence of some other
statements. In ordinary mathematical English the use of “therefore” customarily indicates that the
following statement is a consequence of what comes before.
Examples:
a. All men are mortal. Luke is a man. Hence, Luke is mortal.
b. All dogs like fish. Cyber is a dog. Hence, Cyber likes fish.
Definition:
Simple statement – it contains a single idea.
Compound statement – it contains a several simple statement (ideas). The ideas in a compound
statement are connected by connectives such as and, or, if . . . then, and if and only if.
Simple Statements Compound statements Symbols

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Statement A:
The highest mountain in the
Philippines is Mt. Apo The highest mountain in the
Philippines is Mt. Apo, and the B
A
Statement B: second highest mountain is Mt.
The second highest mountain Pulag.
is Mt. Pulag.

Statement S:
We will go to Camiguin Island.
We will go to Camiguin Island or
Sv T
Statement T: we will go to Mactan Island.
We will go to Mactan Island.

To create a compound statement, connectives like and, or, if . . . then, and “if and only if” are
used. The symbols p, q, r and s represent simple statements. Below are symbols used for connectives.
Logic Math Notation English term Meaning
Symbols
Negation ~ ~P Not Not P
Conjunction ¿ P^Q And P and Q
Disjunction v PvQ Or (inclusive) P or Q
Conditional ⇒ P⇒Q If…then… If P then Q

Biconditional ⇔ P⇔Q If and only if P if and only if Q

The first example of compound statement which is “The highest mountain in the Philippines is
Mt. Apo, and the second highest mountain is Mt. Pulag.” may be written using the following symbols.

Statement Symbol
The highest mountain in the Philippines is Mt. Apo. p
The second highest mountain is Mt. Pulag. q
The highest mountain in the Philippines is Mt. Apo, and the second highest p^q
mountain is Mt. Pulag.

Examples:
Let P: “Petals of rose are red”
Q: “ Thorns of rose are green”

Negation:
~P: The petals of rose are not red.
~Q: The thorns of rose are not green.

Conjunction:
P^Q: The petals of rose are red and its thorns are green.

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~P^~Q: The petals of rose are not red and its thorns are not green.
Disjunction:
P v Q: The petals of rose are red or its thorns are green.
~P v ~Q: The petals of roes are not red or its thorns are not green.
Conditional:
P ⇒ Q: If the petals of rose are red, then its thorns are green.
~P⇒~Q: If the petals of rose are not red, then its thorns are not green.
Biconditional:
P⇔Q: The petals of rose are red if and only if its thorns are green.
~P⇔~Q: The petals of rose are not red if and only if its thorns are not green.

Quantifiers and Negation

“All freshmen students are graduates of the K-12 curriculum.” Is a quantified statement which is
a statement containing quantifiers. The words like “ all, there exists, and none” are examples of
quantifiers. Existential quantifiers like “there exists” and “at least one” are used to emphasize the
existence of something. Words like “ none and no” deny the existence of something, and words like “ all
and every” stress out that every element satisfies a condition. These words are called universal
quantifiers.

Every variable in a mathematical statement has a corresponding quantifier. The quantifiers are
“for all” and “there exists”. The phrases like “for all x in R or “for every x in R ” is written as ∀ x ∈ R . The
phrases “for some x in R or “there exist an x in R such that” is written as Ǝ x ∈ ℝ.

The negation of the statement “ All freshmen students are graduates of the K – 12 curriculum”
is “Some freshmen students are not graduate of the K – 12 curriculum”. Why not “No freshmen
students are graduates of the K – 12 curriculum.”? Remember the fact that the negation of a true
statement is a false statement, and the negation of a false statement is a true statement. The table
below illustrates on how to write the negation of some quantified statements.

Quantified Statement Negation

No Y are Z. Some Y are Z.
Some Y are Z. No Y are Z.
Some Y are not Z. All Y are Z.
All Y are Z. Some Y are not Z.

Learning Activity: Individual Activity

Activity 11: (30 points)

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Aldersgate College Mathematics in the Modern World
College of Arts, Sciences and Education

A. In a short bond-paper, write 5 examples of simple statements and five examples of

compound statements about the Philippines. These can be trivia or recent news. (15
points).
Simple Statement Compound Statement
The climate in Baguio City is cool and The climate in Baguio City is cool and
breezy breezy while in Metro Manila is hot.
The Climate in Metro Manila is so hot
We are going to Boracay We are going to Boracay or we are
going to Cebu
We are going to Cebu
The pandemic is getting really serious The pandemic is getting really serious
and its never ending this day
The pandemic is never ending this
day
It's the perfect time to go to beach
The weather forecast tells that there tells that today will not
are no chances of rain today
B. Write
the
compound statements on the activity 11.A using the correct symbols. (10 points).
Compound Statement Symbols

C. Write the negation of each of the following statements. (5 points).

a. All school gates are open.
Negation:
b. Some drinks in the school canteen are coffee based.
Negation:
c. No student are wearing their uniforms.
Negation:
d. All Filipino citizens in Cebu City are affected by the Corona Virus Disease.
Negation:
e. Some remote areas here in the Philippines are not infected by the COVID-19.
Negation:

Lesson 2B: Truth Tables and Tautologies

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Aldersgate College Mathematics in the Modern World
College of Arts, Sciences and Education

Learning Focus:

On the previous lessons, you learned how to construct compound propositions. To identify the
truth value of a compound proposition, we construct truth tables. A simple proposition will have a truth
table consisting of two rows because its value is either true or false. For a compound proposition
consisting of two simple propositions, there will be four rows needed for the truth table.

Truth Tables
- It shows the truth or falsity of a compound statement. It depends on the truth or falsity of
the simple statements from which it is constructed.
Types of Statements
1. Negation
P ~P
T F
F T
Examples:
1. P: 3 – 5 = -2
~P: 3−5≠−2
2. ~P: 10 – 3 =8
P: 10−3≠ 8
3. P: It is raining –
P :It is not raining –

2. Conjunction
- It contains 2 independent statements yet connected.
- It connects 2 propositions using “AND” or (P^Q)
P Q P^Q
(truth value)
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

NOTE:
The value of the conjunction is TRUE if and only if the both statements are true, otherwise it is
false.
Example:
1. It is raining and the flowers are wet - the truth value is T
2. It is raining and the flowers are not wet – the truth value is F
3. It is not raining and the flowers are not wet. – the truth value is F

3. Disjunction
- It connects 2 propositions using “OR” or (P v Q)

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Aldersgate College Mathematics in the Modern World
College of Arts, Sciences and Education

P Q PvQ
(truth value)
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

NOTE:
The truth value of disjunction is FALSE if and only if both statements are false.

Example:
Let P: You will go to Baguio
Q: I will go to U.S
1. You will go to Baguio or I will go to U.S. – the truth value is T.
2. You will not go to Baguio or I will go to U.S. – the truth value is T.
3. You will not go to Baguio or I will not go to U.S - the truth value is F.

Another example:
Let P: Jake is sleeping
Q: Robert is studying
1. Jake is sleeping or Robert is studying. – the truth value is T .
2. Jake is sleeping or Robert is not studying.- the truth value is T.
3. Jake is not sleeping or Robert is not studying. – the truth value is F.
4. Jake is not sleeping or Robert is studying. – the truth value is T.

4. Conditional (Implication)
- It contains 2 logical statements that are connected wherein the one is the cause of the other
one. (If - Then relationship)
- If p is the hypothesis, then q is the conclusion.
- The conditional is defined to be true unless a true hypothesis leads to a false conclusion.
P Q P⇒Q
(truth value)
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

P implies q (p⇒q)
Example:
If you get an A, then I’ll give you a dollar.
Q if only p (q⇒p)
I’ll give you a dollar if you get an A.
Note: Q does not exist if p does not exist.

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Aldersgate College Mathematics in the Modern World
College of Arts, Sciences and Education

Types of Conditional Statement

Let P: It rains
Q: We cancel classes
a. Converse – reverse of the hypothesis and conclusion.
-q⇒p
Ex. If it rains then we cancel classes.
- If we cancel classes then it rains
b. Inverse – the negation of the conditional statement.
Ex. If it rains then we cancel classes.
- If it does not rain then we do not cancel classes.
c. Contrapositive – the reverse of the inverse statement or the negated statement.
Ex. If it does not rain then we do not cancel classes.
- If we do not cancel classes then it does not rain.
Example:
1. If 2 angles are congruent, then they have the same measure.
Hypothesis: 2 angles are congruent.
Conclusion: They have the same measure.
Converse:
q → p: If they have the same measure, then 2 angles are congruent.
Inverse:
p → q : If 2 angles are not congruent, then they do not have the same measure.
Contrapositive:
q → p : If 2 angles do not have the same measure, then they are not congruent.

5. Biconditional statement – p ⇔ q
- p ⇔ q means p if only if q or p is equivalent to q

P Q P⇔Q
(truth value)
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example:
You can pass the subject if and only if you study hard.

Learning Activity:

Activity 12:
A. Give five (5) conditional statements regarding safety protocols during this pandemic period.
Identify the hypothesis and conclusion. (15 points)

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Aldersgate College Mathematics in the Modern World
College of Arts, Sciences and Education

1. Conditional Statement: .
Hypothesis: .
Conclusion: .
2. Conditional Statement: .
Hypothesis: .
Conclusion: .
3. Conditional Statement: .
Hypothesis: .
Conclusion: .
4. Conditional Statement: .
Hypothesis: .
Conclusion: .
5. Conditional Statement: .
Hypothesis: .
Conclusion: .

B. Write each statement in if – then statement form. Then write its converse, inverse and
contrapositive. (20 points)

Example: The sum of two even numbers is even.

Statement
Conditional Statement If two even numbers are added, their sum will also be an
even number.
Converse If the sum of two numbers is an even number, the addends
are also an even numbers.
Inverse Option 1:
If two even numbers are not added, their sum will not
also be an even number.
Option 2:
If the addends are not even numbers, their sum will not
also be an even numbers.
Contrapositive If the sum of two numbers is not an even number, the
addends are not also an even numbers.

1. Two points determine a unique line.

Statement
Conditional Statement If there are two points then it can determine unique line
Converse If it can determines a unique line then there are two points
Inverse If there are no two points then it can not determine unique
line
Contrapositive If it can not determine a unique line then there are no two
points

2. An even number is divisible by 2.

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College of Arts, Sciences and Education

Statement
Conditional Statement If a number is an even number then it is divisible by 2.
Converse If it is divisible by 2 then a number is an even number.
Inverse If a number is not an even number then it is not divisible by 2.
Contrapositive If it is not divisible by 2 then a number is an not even number.

3. A positive integer is greater than zero.

Statement
Conditional Statement If it is a positive integer then it is greater than 0.
Converse If it is greater than 0 then it is a positive integer.
Inverse If it is not a positive integer then it is not greater than 0.
Contrapositive If it is not greater than 0 then it is not a positive integer.

4. Two perpendicular lines form four right angles.

Statement
Conditional Statement If there are two perpendicular lines then it form right angles.
Converse If it will form right angles then there are two perpendicular
lines.
Inverse If there are no two perpendicular lines then it will not form
right angles.
Contrapositive If it will not form right angles then there are no two
perpendicular lines.

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