Intro to Journalism

Lecture 1: Meanings & Definitions of Journalism

 Journalism (includes 3 main elements) is the production and distribution (element # 1) of

reports & news (element # 2) on recent events (element # 3, which varies based on a
publication’s circulation … daily, weekly, monthly, etc.). The word journalism applies to citizen
journalists (non-professional members of the public that use technology to report and share
news and information) using methods of gathering information and literary techniques.
Journalistic media include print, television, radio, internet, and, in the past, newsreels (a short
film containing news stories and current events, which was popular in the first half of the 20th
century and shown in movie theaters before the feature film).

 Journalism is the activity of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news and information.
It is also the product of these activities.

 Journalism can be distinguished from other activities and products by certain identifiable
characteristics and practices (such as news gathering, verification, objectivity, editorial
judgment, ethical standards, and professionalism).

 These elements not only separate journalism from other forms of communication, they are
what make it indispensable to democratic societies. History reveals that the more democratic a
society, the more news and information it tends to have.

 Journalism is a form of communication based on asking & answering the questions: Who?
What? Where? When? Why? How? (5Ws + H)

 Journalism is anything that contributes in some way to gathering, selection, processing of news
& current affairs for the press, radio, T.V., film, cable, Internet, etc.
 Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying & presenting news regarding current
events, trends, issues & people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists.

 Journalism is defined by Denis McQuail as:

"Paid writing for public media with reference to actual & ongoing events of public relevance."

 Concepts of the role for journalism vary between countries. In some nations, the news media
are controlled by government intervention and are not fully independent.
In others, the news media are independent of the government but instead operate as private
industry motivated by profit. In addition to the varying nature of how media organizations are
run and funded, countries may have differing implementations of laws handling the freedom of
speech and libel cases.

In Egypt, there are 3 types of publishers:

1. The state (‫ )الدولة‬such as “Al-Ahram” and “Al-Akhbar”
2. The private sector (‫ )القطاع الخاص‬such as “Al-Shorouk”
3. Political parties (‫ )األحزاب السياسية‬such as “Al-Wafd”

 The advent of the Internet and smartphones has brought significant changes to the media
landscape in recent years. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels,
as people increasingly consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other personal
electronic devices, as opposed to … the more traditional formats of newspapers, magazines, or
television news channels. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing,
as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print
revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues.

 Journalism is a specific approach to reality. However, there is no consensus in the journalist

community on this, nor is there any universally code of conduct or code of ethics, and where it
does exist is rarely enforced.
Opinions vary on whether journalism is a public service, an entertainment (most popular), a
cultural industry motivated by profit, or a tool for propaganda, public relations & advertising.
 Journalism can be a combination of all these, or each of these separately. Opinions are not so
varied about the other professions.

 Additional Notes:
1. Journalism can generally be divided into two primary functions: writing and editing.
– Writing is the primary function of a journalist, and it involves the creation of news
stories, features, or any other content that informs the public about the world around
them.
– Editing, on the other hand, is the process of reviewing and refining written content to
ensure that it meets the highest standards of quality and accuracy. An editor is
responsible for ensuring that the content is well-structured, free of errors, and adheres
to the organization's style and tone.

2. Editorial Policy (‫)السياسة التحريرية‬: a set of guidelines and principles that govern the editorial
decision-making process of a media organization, such as a newspaper, magazine, or
website. It outlines the publication's mission, values, and editorial standards, and
establishes the framework for what content is considered acceptable and appropriate for
publication. The editorial policy could be defined by 2 simple questions: what to publish? &
how to publish it?

3. Historically, journalism has been classified into two categories based on the type of political
system within which it operates: democratic and non-democratic.

In democratic states, journalism is characterized by a free press that operates independently

of the government and other powerful institutions. Journalists are allowed to report on all
aspects of society without fear of censorship, repression, or retaliation.

In non-democratic states, journalism operates under a different set of rules. The media is
often tightly controlled by the government or other powerful actors, and journalists may
face censorship, repression, or even imprisonment or violence for reporting on sensitive
topics. The media is often used as a tool of propaganda to support the ruling regime and
suppress dissenting voices.
Lecture 2: Functions of Journalism

Journalism can be seen as a multifaceted field that involves 3 different aspects: a craft, profession, and a
business/trade.

1. As a craft, journalism involves specialization in one area (Editorial, Design – ‫تصميم‬/‫إخراج‬, or

Printing). For the reporters & sub-editors for instance, it entails writing to a deadline, following
routines in workplace, while respecting the divisions of labor in the newsroom and the printing
press.

In earlier times, knowledge of typewriting and shorthand (in Arabic it’s called “‫ ”االختزال‬and is a
system of rapid writing that allows journalists and other writers to take notes quickly and
efficiently) were the main skills demanded. But today, computing and DTP (desktop publishing)
skills are in demand for all areas of journalism.

2. As a profession, journalism is markedly different from other established professions like

medicine, law, managing or teaching. While established professions require some specialized
educational qualifications and training to be enrolled to them, journalism does not make any
such requirement essential. There is no bar to anyone entering the profession, no matter what
one's educational background or professional experiences are is it’s considered an “open
profession”.

From the very beginning, journalism has been, and still, remain an "open" profession. Also,
journalism has no special body of knowledge that defines the profession and marks its
relationship with its clients (readers, advertisers, advertising agencies, public relations official,
others).

3. As a business and trade, journalism involves publishing on a regular basis for profit (by adapting
an advertising-based or subscription-based business model), with news considered as the
primary product. Hence, there’s the need to attract advertisers and readers, through marketing
strategies, which focus on circulation and readership.

What makes journalism different than other forms of communication?

 The world, and especially the online world, is awash in communication. The vast majority of this
communication, however, is not news and especially not journalism.

Almost 70 percent of email traffic is spam, according to web security company Symantec. In
2017, there was an average of 175 million tweets each day. But almost all – 99% — consisted of
“pointless babble,” according to researchers at Carnegie Mellon University.
  While journalism takes a much smaller space than the talk, entertainment, opinion, assertion,
advertising and propaganda that dominate the media universe, it is nevertheless perceived as
being more valuable than most of the “stuff out there.”

 That value flows from its purpose, to provide people with verified information they can use to
make better decisions, and its practices, the most important of which is a systematic process – a
discipline of verification – that journalists use to find not just the facts, but also the “truth about
the facts.”

What is the purpose of journalism?

 The purpose of journalism is not defined by technology, nor by journalists or the techniques
they employ. Rather, the principles and purpose of journalism are defined by something more
basic: the function news plays in the lives of people.

 News is that part of communication that keeps us informed of the changing events, issues, and
characters in the world outside.

 Though it may be interesting or even entertaining, the most important value of news is as a
utility to empower the informed. The purpose of journalism is thus to provide citizens with the
information they need to make the best possible decisions about their lives, their communities,
their societies, and their governments.

Functions of Journalism:

There are 5 main function of journalism: to informing, interpretation, entertaining, advertising, and
opinion for motives.

1. Information (News Function)

This function includes all reports, news, and happenings concerning the daily life. News helps in
informing people of what is going around them in the world. It covers the entire serious topics
that every individual has the right to know for the better living. Here, topics like politics,
 business, education, foreign affairs, and weather forecasts are all covered. News helps us inform
and explain complicated processes and topics in a simple way.

Modern journalism aims to provide more than just the facts; it also includes explanations,
background information, interpretation, and diagrams to help the audience understand and
engage with the information being presented.

2. Interpretation of News (Education Function/providing background info)

News can be difficult for even experts to understand. Journalists today need to provide not only
facts, but also explanations and background information to help people comprehend what they
are reading or hearing. This is important because many people do not have a deep
understanding of complex fields such as economics or science. This would help ordinary citizens
make better, and informed, decisions.

3. Entertainment (the most important and popular function)

Journalism has increasingly focused on entertaining its audience, in addition to informing and
shaping opinions. This includes both fiction and non-fiction content, such as comic strips, sports
news, theater and film reviews, advice columns, etc. The entertainment function is extremely
important and essential to attracting and retaining large audiences, which is crucial for the
financial success of newspapers and magazines. The inclusion of entertainment content can also
indirectly influence people's understanding of the world. The entertainment function is the most
important function of journalism because it is like a magnet in that it attracts and retains large
audiences.

4. Advertising
Advertising is a key and essential function of journalism as it provides the largest source of
revenue for financing and covering the expenses of media organizations. Advertising also
provides marketing information to the public and helps advertisers and businesses adapt to
changes in their fields. Keep in mind that:

– The press's commercial focus is easily identifiable in its advertising, although there are
also public service messages included in advertisements such as those promoting family
 planning, safe driving, childcare, and healthcare. However, the primary goal of
commercially oriented advertising is to increase sales of products or services.

– Advertising plays a critical role in the success of mass media, as it generates the largest
share of revenue to support the highly advanced and technically sophisticated press
systems. In fact, daily newspapers, magazines, and other publications rely heavily on
advertising revenue to sustain their operations.

– Advertising provides valuable marketing information to the public and informs business
owners of changes within their industries.

5. Opinion for Motives

Journalism has always sought to influence mankind. It aims to sway the minds of the public
through words, cartoons, and pictures that appear in newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, books
and through spoken words on and off air.

“Opinion for motives” implies that journalism influences the opinion of the readers through
editorials, articles, signed column, special features, and other journalistic work.

In journalism people are not only informed, guided, and entertained but they’re influenced and
directed by the publication’s agendas in regards to certain issues and topics. This influence could
be positive or negative.

For example, after the September 11 attacks, people were influenced by the media and started
to build Islamophobic ideologies, and some even went to the extent of believing that all Muslims
are terrorists.

 Additional Notes:

1. Profits in the field of journalism come from 2 main revenue streams: viewers and/or
advertisers, with advertising being the primary source of revenue for most news outlets. The
 more viewers an outlet has, the more valuable it is to advertisers, resulting in higher
advertising rates and increased profits.

2. An “opinion for motive” is usually found in one of the following formats:

– Editorial (‫[ )االفتتاحية‬the organization’s opinion]: are typically found in newspapers and
magazines and are written by the publication's editor-in-chief or editorial board. They
represent the official opinion of the publication on a particular topic or issue. Editorials
are typically written in a persuasive tone and aim to convince the reader of the
publication's position.
– Column (‫[ )العمود الصحفي‬the writer’s opinion]: are usually written by a regular
contributor to a publication, such as a journalist or expert in a particular field. Columns
are often more personal than editorials and allow the writer to express their own
opinion on a particular issue. They may also offer analysis or commentary on current
events. Columns have a fixed headline/title, size, and circulation (weekly, biweekly,
monthly, etc.).
– Article (‫[ )مقال‬the writer’s opinion]: may be written by staff writers or outside
contributors and can cover a wide range of topics. Like editorials and columns, an article
aims to persuade the reader of a particular viewpoint or topic.

3. Potential exam questions:

– Question: What makes Journalism different from other forms of communication?
Answer: While Journalism only takes a tiny space in media, in comparison to other
forms of mass media, it is the most efficient, beneficial, and informative.

– Question: What's the purpose of journalism?

Answer: News is the part of communication that keeps us (ordinary citizens) informed
and educated so that we're able to make informed decisions about our daily lives.
Lecture 3: Elements of Journalism

Elements of journalism:

Here are the most valuable elements common to good journalism and journalists:

1. Journalism’s first obligation is to the truth:

Good decision-making depends on people having reliable, accurate facts put in a meaningful
context. Journalism does not pursue truth in an absolute or philosophical sense, but in a
capacity that is more down to earth.

All truths – even the laws of science – are subject to revision, but we operate by them in the
meantime because they are necessary and they work. Thus, journalism seeks a practical and
functional form of truth. It is not the truth in the absolute or philosophical or scientific sense but
rather a pursuit of “the truths by which we can operate on a day-to-day basis.”

This “journalistic truth” is a process that begins with the professional discipline of assembling
and verifying facts. Then journalists try to convey a fair and reliable account of their meaning,
subject to further investigation. Journalists should be as transparent as possible about sources
and methods so audiences can make their own assessment of the information. Additionally, as
citizens encounter an ever-greater flow of data, they have more need – not less – for suppliers
of information dedicated to finding and verifying the news and putting it in context.

2. Objectivity:
Michael Hudson proposes that "the belief in objectivity is a faith in 'facts,' distrust in 'values,'
and a commitment to their segregation."

Objectivity also outlines an institutional role for journalists as a fourth estate, a body that exists
apart from government and large interest groups. Journalistic objectivity requires that a
journalist not be on either side of an argument. The journalist must report only the facts and not
a personal attitude toward the facts.
 While objectivity is a complex and dynamic notion that may refer to a plenty of techniques and
practices, it generally refers to the idea of 3 independent, yet interrelated, concepts:
truthfulness, neutrality, and detachment.

– Truthfulness: a commitment to reporting only accurate and truthful information,

without skewing any facts or details to improve the story or better align an issue with
any certain agenda.
– Neutrality: proposes that stories be reported in an unbiased, even-handed manner.
Under this notion, journalists are to side with none of the parties involved, and simply
provide the relevant facts and information of all.
– Detachment: refers to the emotional approach of the journalist. Essentially, reporters
should not only approach issues in an unbiased manner, but also with a dispassionate
and emotionless approach.

Through this strategy, stories can be presented in a rational and calm manner, letting the audience
make up their minds without any external influences from the media.

3. Journalism Bias:
Reporters are biased about:
 Conflict because it is more interesting than stories without conflict.
 Event-driven coverage because it is easier.
 Existing narratives because they are safe and easy.

Types of Bias:

The most commonly discussed types of bias happen when journalists support or attack a
particular political party, candidate, or ideology.

D'Alessio and Allen list three forms of media bias as the most widely studied:

1. Coverage bias (aka visibility bias): when actors or issues are more or less visible in the
news. The subject is covered, but with limited coverage.
2. Gatekeeping bias (aka selectivity/selection bias): when stories are selected or
deselected, sometimes on ideological grounds. It is sometimes also referred to as
agenda bias, when the focus is on political actors and whether they are covered based
on their preferred policy issues. The subject isn’t covered at all.
3. Statement bias (aka presentation bias): when media coverage is slanted towards or
against particular actors or issues. The subject is covered but one side of the argument is
given more space to talk.

Other Common Types of Political and Non-political Bias Include:

4. Advertising Bias: when stories are selected or slanted to please advertisers.

5. Corporate Bias: when stories are selected or slanted to please corporate owners of the
media organization.
6. Mainstream bias: a tendency to report whatever everyone else is reporting, and to
avoid stories that will offend anyone (to an extreme extent).
7. Supporter Bias: a tendency to report just to serve particular political party leaning.
8. Sensation Bias (‫)اإلثارة‬: in favor of the exceptional over the ordinary, giving the
impression that rare events, such as airplane crashes or murders, are more common
than common events, such as car crashes.
9. False Balance: when an issue is presented as even sided, despite odd amounts of
evidence.
10. Undue Weight: when a story is given much greater significance or portent than a
neutral journalist or editor would give.
11. Speculative content: when stories focus not on what has happened, but primarily on
what might happen, using words like "could," "might," or "what if," without labeling the
article as analysis or opinion.
12. Quote bias: when experts or witnesses are quoted in a way that intentionally voices the
author's own opinion. For example, a journalist may choose to quote only those sources
that agree with their point of view, while ignoring sources that offer a different opinion.

Other forms of bias include reporting that favors or attacks a particular race, religion,
gender, age, ethnic group, or even person.