Logarithmic Functions

In this section we introduce logarithmic functions. Notice that every exponential

function f(x) = ax, with a > 0 and a ≠ 1, is a one-to-one function by the Horizontal Line
Test and therefore has an inverse function. The inverse function of the exponential
function with base a is called the logarithmic function with base a and is denoted by log a
x. Recall that f -1 is defined by

f −1 ( y ) = x ⇔ f ( x) = y

This leads to the following definition of the logarithmic function.

Definition of the Logarithmic Function:

Let a be a positive number with a ≠ 0. The logarithmic function with

base a, denoted by log a, is defined by

log a x = y ⇔ a y = x

In other words, this says that

log a x is the exponent to which the base a must be raised to give x.

The form log a x = y is called the logarithmic form, and the form ay = x is called the
exponential form. Notice that in both forms the base is the same:

By: Crystal Hull

Example 1: Express each equation in exponential form.

(a) log 7 49 = 2
(b) log16 4 = 12

Solution:

From the definition of the logarithmic function we know

log a x = y ⇔ a y = x

This implies

(a) log 7 49 = 2 ⇔ 7 2 = 49

log16 4 = ⇔ 16 2 = 4
1
1
(b) 2

Example 2: Express each equation in logarithmic form.

(a) 34 = 81
(b) 6−1 = 16

Solution:

From the definition of the logarithmic function we know

a y = x ⇔ log a x = y

This implies

(a) 34 = 81 ⇔ log 3 81 = 4

(b) 6−1 = 1
6 ⇔ log 6 16 = −1

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions:

Since the logarithmic function f(x) = log a x is the inverse of the exponential function
f(x) = ax, the graphs of these two functions are reflections of each other through the line
y = x.

By: Crystal Hull

Also, since the exponential function with a ≠ 0 has domain ú and range (0, ∞), we
conclude its inverse, the logarithmic function, has domain (0, ∞) and range ú. Finally,
since f(x) = ax has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0, f(x) = log a x has a vertical
asymptote at x = 0.

Example 3: Draw the graph of y = 5x, then use it to draw the graph of y = log 5 x.

Solution:

Step 1: To graph y = 5x, start by choosing some values of x and finding

the corresponding y-values.

Step 2: Plot the points found in the previous step for y = 5x and draw a
smooth curve connecting them.

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Example 3 (Continued):

Step 3: To find the graph of y = log 5 x, all we need to do is reflect the

graph of y = 5x over the line y = x, because they are inverses.

Another way we can find the graph of y = log 5 x is to take the

chart we found in Step 1 for y = 5x, and switch the x and y
values. Then we plot the new points and draw a smooth curve
connecting them.

The figure below shows the graphs of the family of logarithmic functions with bases 2, 3,
5, and 10.

By: Crystal Hull

We can now add the logarithmic function to our list of library functions. In addition, we
can perform transformations to the logarithmic function using the techniques learned
earlier.

Example 4: Graph the function f(x) = -log 3 (x + 2), not by plotting points, but by
starting from the graphs in the above figure. State the domain, range, and
asymptote.

Solution:

Step 1: To obtain the graph of f(x) = -log 3 (x + 2), we start with the
graph of f(x) = log 3 x, reflect it across the x-axis and shift it to
the left 2 units.

Step 2: Notice that while the vertical asymptote is not actually part of the
graph, it also shifts left 2 units, and so the vertical asymptote of
f(x) = -log 3 (x + 2) is the line x = –2. Looking at the graph, we
see that the domain of f is (–2, ∞), and the range is ú.

Some important properties of logarithms are as follows:

By: Crystal Hull

Properties of Logarithms:

Common Logarithms:

Frequently one will see the logarithmic function written without a specified base,
y = log x. This is known as the common logarithm, and it is the logarithm with base 10.

The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithm and is denoted by
omitting the base:

log x = log10 x

Natural Logarithms:

Of all possible bases a for logarithms, it turns out the most convenient choice for the
purposes of calculus is the number e.

The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and is denoted by ln:

ln x = log e x

The natural logarithmic function y = ln x is the inverse function of the exponential

function y = ex. Both functions are graphed below.

By: Crystal Hull

By the definition of inverse functions we have

ln x = y ⇔ e y = x

The same important properties of logarithms that were listed above also apply to natural
logarithms.

Properties of Natural Logarithms:

Example 5: Evaluate the expressions.

(a) log 7 1
(b) log 3 3
(c) ln e12
(d) 10logπ

By: Crystal Hull

Example 5 (Continued):

Solution (a):

The first property of logarithms says log a 1 = 0. Thus,

log 7 1 = 0

Solution (b):

The second property of logarithms says log a a = 1. Thus,

log 3 3 = 1 .

Solution (c):

The third property of natural logarithms says ln ex = x. Thus,

ln e12 = 12 .

Solution (d):

Step 1: First note that log π = log 10 π. So

10log π = 10log10 π

Step 2: The fourth property of logarithms says aloga x = x. Thus

10log10 π = π .

Example 6: Use the definition of the logarithmic function to find x.

(a) 3 = log 2 x
(b) −4 = log 3 x
(c) 4 = log x 625
(d) −2 = log x 100

Solution (a):

Step 1: By the definition of the logarithm, we can rewrite the expression

in exponential form.

3 = log 2 x ⇔ 23 = x

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Example 6 (Continued):

Step 2: Now we can solve for x.

x = 23
x =8

Solution (b):

Step 1: Rewrite the expression in exponential form using the definition

of the logarithmic function.

−4 = log 3 x ⇔ 3−4 = x

Step 2: Solve for x.

x = 3−4
x= 1
34

x = 811

Solution (c):

Step 1: Rewrite the expression in exponential form using the definition

of the logarithmic function.

4 = log x 625 ⇔ x 4 = 625

Step 2: Solve for x.

x 4 = 625 take the fourth root of both sides

x = ± 4 625
x = ±5

Recall that a logarithm cannot have a negative base. So, we

discard the extraneous solution x = –5, and therefore x = 5 is the
only solution to the expression 4 = log x 625.

Solution (d):

Step 1: Rewrite the expression in exponential form using the definition

of the logarithmic function.

−2 = log x 100 ⇔ x −2 = 100

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Example 6 (Continued):

Step 2: Solve for x.

x −2 = 100
1
x2
= 100 multiply both sides by x 2
1 = 100 x 2 divide both sides by 100
1
100 = x2 take the square root of both sides
x=± 1
100

x = ± 101

Again we note that a logarithm cannot have a negative base. So,

we discard the extraneous solution x = − 101 , and therefore x = 101
is the only solution to the expression −2 = log x 100 .

By: Crystal Hull