Energy flows directionally through the ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic

molecules for chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during the transfers between trophic
levels. Rather than flowing through an ecosystem, the matter that makes up living organisms
is conserved and recycled.

The six most common elements associated with organic molecules are -

•carbon
•nitrogen
•hydrogen
•Oxygen
•phosphorus
•Sulfur

Biochemical Cycle

These elements take a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the
atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath the Earth's surface. Geologic processes, such as
weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all
play a role in the cycling of elements on Earth. Because geology and chemistry have
major roles in the study of this process, the recycling of inorganic matter between living
organisms and their non-living environment is called a biogeochemical cycle.

A biogeochemical cycle or nutrient cycle is a pathway by which a chemical element or

molecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere)compartments of the Earth.

BIO > Biotic components

GEO > Geological & abiotic components
CHEMICAL > Chemical cycles

Ecological Cycle

•The most well-known and important biogeochemical cycles, include the carbon cycle, the
nitrogen cycle, the oxygen cycle, the phosphorus cycle, the sulfur cycle, and the water cycle.

THE CARBON CYCLE

> The carbon cycle is the process that moves between plants, animals, and microbes;
minerals in the earth; and the atmosphere.

WHAT IS CARBON?

• Carbon gets its name from the Latin word carbo, which means "coal".

⚫ It is non-metallic element
• The fourth most abundant element in the universe
• Carbon makes up for 18% of the human body. (Sugar, glucose, proteins, DNA)

⚫ the carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine
Lavoisier, and popularized by Humphry Davy. It is now usually thought of as five major
reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange.

These reservoirs are:

> The atmosphere

> The terrestrial biosphere, which is usually defined to include freshwater systems and
nonliving organic material, such as soil carbon.
> The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota.
> The sediments including fossil fuels.
> The Earth's interior, carbon from the Earth's mantle and crust is released to the
atmosphere and hydrosphere by volcanoes and geothermal systems.

STEPS IN THE CARBON CYCLE

1. Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO, from respiration and combustion

2. CO, is absorbed by producers to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis
3. Animals feed on the plants passing the carbon compound along the food chain. Most of
the carbon compound they consume is exhaled as Co formed during the respiration. The
plants and animals eventually die.
4. The dead organisms are eaten by decomposers and the carbon in their bodies is returned
to the atmosphere as CO,. In some conditions the decomposition is blocked. The plant and
animal material may then be available as fossil fuel in the future for combustion.

Petroleum and natural gas formation

Decomposition of dead organisms brings about the formation of fossil fuels that contain
carbon. Burning of fossil fuels like coal and volcanic eruptions also releases CO to the
atmosphere. These occurrences can result in increased CO, in the environment, which can
bring about the greenhouse effect.

Destruction of forests can also bring about an increase of CO, in the atmosphere. When
forest are burned, burnt plant materials are converted to CO,. Combustion of coal liberates
CO,. These events increase CO in the atmosphere, thereby adding to the greenhouse."
effects.

• RESPIRATION- is defined as a metabolic process wherein, the living cells of an organism

obtains energy (in the form of ATP) by taking in oxygen and liberating carbon dioxide from
the oxidation of complex organic substances.

• WEATHERING- is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on Earth's

surface.
• LEACHING- is the removal of soluble material from a substance, such as soil or rock,
through the percolation. of water.

•RUNOFF - occurs when there is more water than land can absorb. The excess liquid flows
across the surface of the land and into nearby creeks.

THE OXYGEN CYCLE

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within
its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within
the biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the lithosphere (Earth's crust).

Failures in the oxygen cycle within the hydrosphere (the combined mass of water found on,
under, and over the surface of a planet) can result in the development of hypoxic zones. The
main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the
modern Earth's atmosphere and life.

EFFECTS OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES ON THE OXYGEN CYCLE

Through combustion processes, oxygen is withdrawn from the atmosphere; thus, there is an
increase in carbon dioxide. Since more and more rural areas are being converted into urban
areas, trees that release free oxygen into the atmosphere are lessened, thus the air that
man breathes is not fresh but polluted.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is one of the basic elements that compose of proteins. Proteins are the structural
components of all living things. All organisms are made up of proteins. Growth of plants will
be limited if there is not enough nitrogen in the soil.

About 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas (N). How ever in this state, nitrogen can not be
used by organisms. Before nitrogen can be made available to plants and animals, it must
first be fixed by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria found in the nodules of legumes
(such as soybean, mongo, or pea) convert nitrogen (N) to ammonia (NH,+) or ammonium
(NH +) by a process called nitrogen fixation. When these bacteria die, ammonia or
ammonium is released and used by other bacteria as an energy source.

•A small portion of gaseous nitrogen is fixed in the air by lightning and the fixed nitrogen is
brought down to the soil by rain.

•In a process called nitrification, ammonia or ammonium is converted into nitrites (NO,) by
nitrifying bacteria in the soil. Some of this bacteria converts nitrites to nitrates (NO).
2 NH, +30, → 2 NO, + 2NH +2 HO
When ammonia and nitrates that are released in the soil are dissolved in soil water, they are
absorbed by roots of plants and become incorporated into plant proteins. These plant
proteins are then eaten by animals by which animal proteins are formed.

In ammonification, metabolic wastes (i.e. urea, uric acid)and remains of plants and animals
are broken down by decomposers releasing ammonia or ammonium in the process. These
substances will then undergo nitrification converting them to nitrites then to nitrates.

Nitrates not used by plants are converted by denitrifying bacteria to nitrogen gas which is
released to the atmosphere. Some of the gaseous nitrogen is converted by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria to ammonia or ammonium, thereby repeating the cycle.

EFFECTS OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES ON THE NITROGEN CYCLE

> Prior to 1914, man used to be dependent on nitrate deposits for fixed nitrogen required for
fertilizers and explosives. In 1914, the Haber-Bosch process was developed for industrial
fixation of nitrogen. Annual industrial fixation is now about 30 millions tons of nitrogen,
principally for use as fertilizer. In fact, today, nearly 80° of the nitrogen found in the human
tissues originated from the Haber-Bosch process.

> Eutrophication of water causes prolific growth of algae which in turn will use up the
dissolved oxygen in the water for their decomposition. Decrease in the amount of dissolved
oxygen can lead to massive killing of fishes.

➤ Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers and
release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.

EUTROPHICATION PROCESS

EUTROPHICATION- is the process by which an entire body of water, or parts of it, becomes
progressively enriched with minerals and nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. It
has also been defined as "nutrient-induced increase in phytoplankton productivity".

THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of ions PO and HPO2.
It is a part of DNA-molecules, molecules that store energy (ATP and ADP) and of fats of cell
membranes.

Phosphorus is also a building block. of certain parts of the human and animal body. Such as
the bones and teeth.

> Phosphorus can be found on earth in water, soil and sediments. Unlike the compounds of
other matter cycles, phosphorus cannot be found in air(gaseous state). This is because
phosphorus is usually liquid at normal temperatures and pressures.
It is mainly cycling through water, soil and sediments.
> In the atmosphere, phosphorus can mainly be found as very small dust particles.
Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in sediments, to living organisms, and
then much more slowly back into the soil and water sediment. The phosphorus cycle is the
slowest one of the matter cycles that are described here.

> Phosphorus is most commonly found in rock formations and ocean sediments as
phosphate salts. Phosphate salts that are released from rocks through weathering usually
dissolve in soil water and will be absorbed by plants.

Because the quantities of phosphorus in soil are generally small, it is often the limiting factor
for plant growth. That is why humans often apply phosphate fertilizers on farmland.
Phosphates are also limiting factors for plant-growth in marine ecosystems, because they
are not very water-soluble. Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating
animals.

> Phosphorus cycles through plants and animals much faster than it does through rocks and
sediments. When animals and plants die, phosphates will return to the soils or oceans again
during decay. After that, phosphorus will end up in sediments or rock formations again,
remaining there for million. of years. Eventually, phosphorus is released again through
weathering and the cycle starts over.

EFFECTS OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES ON THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

A very serious case of man's interfering with the phosphorus cycle is seen in the cutting of
tropical rainforests. When the forest is cut and burned, the nutrients that are locked up in the
trees are readily washed away and the land is rendered unproductive.

Also, man has accelerated the loss of phosphate through agricultural practices. The mining
of phosphorus deposits to make phosphate fertilizers and phosphate containing detergents
has contributed to its accelerated loss.

THE SULFUR CYCLE

Sulfur (S), the tenth most abundant element in the universe, is a brittle, yellow, tasteless, and
odorless non-metallic element. It comprises many vitamins, proteins, and hormones that play
critical roles in both climate and in the health of various ecosystems. The majority of the
Earth's sulfur is stored underground in rocks and minerals, including as sulfate salts buried
deep within ocean sediments.

> The sulfur cycle contains both atmospheric and terrestrial portion, the cycle begins with the
weathering of rocks, releasing the stored sulfur. The sulfur then comes into contact with air
where it is converted into sulfate (SO).

• The sulfate is taken up by plants and microorganisms and is converted into organic forms;
animals then consume these organic forms through foods they eat, thereby moving the
sulfur through the food chain. As organisms die and decompose, some of the sulfur is again
released as a sulfate and some enters the tissues of microorganisms.
❖There are also a variety of natural sources that emit sulfur directly into the atmosphere,
including volcanic eruptions, the breakdown of organic matter in swamps and tidal flats, and
the evaporation of water.

> Sulfur eventually settles back into the Earth or comes down within rainfall. A continuous
loss of Fallo Sulfur from terrestrial ecosystem runoff occurs through drainage into lakes and
streams, and oceans. Sulfur enters the ocean through fallout from the Earth's atmosphere.
Within the ocean, some sulfur cycles through marine communities, moving through the food
chain. A portion of this sulfur is emitted back into the atmosphere from sea spray. The
remaining sulfur is lost to the ocean depths, combining with iron to form ferrous sulfide which
is responsible for the black color of most marine sediments.

EFFECTS OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES ON THE SULFUR CYCLE

The sulfur cycle is increasingly affected by industrial air pollution. Normally, sulfur dioxide is
present at very low concentrations in the air. The combustion of fossil fuels has greatly
increased the concentration of sulfur dioxide, especially in urban areas to such an extent that
it is poisoning the biotic components of ecosystem.

☐ ACID RAIN
Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released from industrial factories, electrical power plants,
smelting plants, and motor vehicles. When these gases combine with the moisture in the
atmosphere, they return to the ground as sulfuric acid and nitric acids. These are popularly
known as acid rain. Acid rain brings damage to the lakes, the soil, forest, and buildings.

THE WATER CYCLE

Water (chemical formula H,O) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, and nearly colorless
chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all
known living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life, despite providing neither food,
energy, nor organic micronutrients.

Water covers about 71% of the Earth's surface, mostly in seas and oceans (about 96.5%).
Small portions of water occurs as groundwater (1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of
Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and in the air as vapor, clouds (consisting of ice and liquid
water suspended in air), and precipitation (0.001%).

• Water provides for the needs of living organisms. Without it, plants and animals will die. It is
important for the survival of living things. If you will recall, water is a raw material in
photosynthesis to produce food. It has also its domestic uses such as drinking, washing,
bathing, and cooking. It is also used in factories as well as in farms.

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, is a
biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement of water on, above and
below the surface of the Earth.
■ It is a complex system that includes many different processes.

• Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back
to earth in the form of rain and snow.

•Water in different phases moves through the atmosphere (transportation)

• Liquid water flows across land (runoff)

• Into the ground (infiltration and percolation)

•And through the ground (groundwater)

• Groundwater moves into plants (plant uptake) and evaporates from plants into the
atmosphere (transpiration)

• Solid ice and snow can turn directly into gas (sublimation).The opposite can take also place
when water vapor becomes solid (deposition).

EFFECTS OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES ON THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

> Various anthropogenic activities have heavily destroyed freshwater supplies such as rivers,
streams, and aquifers. Intensive agriculture is a leading cause on account of the large
amounts of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and other agrochemicals that find a way into
water ways.

> Man is continuously withdrawing water from streams for use in irrigation or as a cooling
agent.

> Various anthropogenic activities have heavily destroyed freshwater supplies such as rivers,
streams, and aquifers. Intensive agriculture is a leading cause on account of the large
amounts of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and other agrochemicals that find a way into
water ways.

> Man is continuously withdrawing water from streams for use in irrigation or as a cooling
agent.

> Deforestation has also resulted in an increased runoff, this results also in the flooding of
lowlands and the reduction of water in subsoil.

➤ Drying of ground water may be caused by wasteful and mismanaged domestic and
industrial use of water. Water should be placed back into aquifers instead of storing the
water in man made lakes or building dams.

THE IMPORTANCE OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

➤ Biogeochemical cycles enable the transformation of matter from one form to another.
> Biogeochemical cycles the transfer of molecules from one locality to another.

➤ Biogeochemical cycles facilitates the storage of elements.

➤ Biogeochemical cycles assist in functioning of ecosystems.

> Biogeochemical cycles link living organisms with living organisms, living organisms with
the nonliving organisms and nonliving organisms with non living organisms.

> Biogeochemical cycles regulate the flow of substances.