Journal of Medical Systems (2019) 43:205

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10916-019-1345-y

IMAGE & SIGNAL PROCESSING

Automated Depression Detection Using Deep Representation

and Sequence Learning with EEG Signals
Betul Ay 1 & Ozal Yildirim 2 & Muhammed Talo 2 & Ulas Baran Baloglu 2 & Galip Aydin 1 & Subha D. Puthankattil 3 &
U. Rajendra Acharya 4,5,6

Received: 2 January 2019 / Accepted: 20 May 2019

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Depression affects large number of people across the world today and it is considered as the global problem. It is a mood disorder
which can be detected using electroencephalogram (EEG) signals. The manual detection of depression by analyzing the EEG
signals requires lot of experience, tedious and time consuming. Hence, a fully automated depression diagnosis system developed
using EEG signals will help the clinicians. Therefore, we propose a deep hybrid model developed using convolutional neural
network (CNN) and long-short term memory (LSTM) architectures to detect depression using EEG signals. In the deep model,
temporal properties of the signals are learned with CNN layers and the sequence learning process is provided through the LSTM
layers. In this work, we have used EEG signals obtained from left and right hemispheres of the brain. Our work has provided
99.12% and 97.66% classification accuracies for the right and left hemisphere EEG signals respectively. Hence, we can conclude
that the developed CNN-LSTM model is accurate and fast in detecting the depression using EEG signals. It can be employed in
psychiatry wards of the hospitals to detect the depression using EEG signals accurately and thus aid the psychiatrists.

Keywords Depression detection . Deep learning . CNN-LSTM . Hybrid deep models . EEG signals

Introduction language processing [1–4]. However, very little progress has

been made in neuroscience and biomedical domains due to the
In recent years, deep learning architectures have achieved signif- availability of few data [5]. With rapid enhancement of available
icant success in the areas of computer vision and natural neurological data, there has been a significant improvement in
the learning and diagnosis of neural disorders including seizure,
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Image & Signal Alzheimer, Parkinson, epilepsy, Creutzfeld-Jakob, depression,
Processing emotional states and other abnormality diseases [6–10].
Electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG)
* Ozal Yildirim and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been used for the
[email protected]
diagnosis of various diseases. The EEG is the electrical activity
of the human brain [9] and can be used to detect the seizure
1
Department of Computer Engineering, Fırat University, [10].
Elazığ, Turkey
Recently, deep learning based approaches [12–22, 29,
2
Department of Computer Engineering, Munzur University, 32–36, 49] are employed instead of classical machine learning
Tunceli, Turkey
methods [23–28, 37–43] in processing biomedical signals.
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of When microphones assumed as EEG electrodes and speakers
Technology Calicut, Calicut, India
assumed as activity in cortical regions, Petrosian et al. [11]
4
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering, Ngee Ann applied recurrent neural network (RNN) to extract features from
Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
EEG time series data for seizure prediction. To address the
5
Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Science and problem, Mirowski [12] used convolutional neural network
Technology, Singapore School of Social Sciences,
Singapore, Singapore
(CNN) to extract features from EEG data. Acharya et al. [13]
6
developed CNN model to detect the seizure from EEG signals
School of Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences,
Taylor’s University, 47500 Subang Jaya, Malaysia
with an average accuracy of 88.7%.
 205 Page 2 of 12 J Med Syst (2019) 43:205

Wulsin [14] used deep belief net (DBN) for the detection of extracted from the EEG signals to detect the depression.
anomaly using EEG records. For deep feature learning from Ahmadlou et al. [44] used combination of wavelet filter bank
EEG recordings, [15] proposed several novel techniques in- and fractal dimension features to detect the depression auto-
cluding cross-trial encoders and hydra-nets. Yildirim et al. matically. Faust et al. [45] used nonlinear features extracted
[16] proposed a 1D-CNN solution to detect the abnormal from the wavelet packet decomposition sub-bands of the EEG
EEG signals with detection error rate of 20.66%. The other signals. Acharya et al., [46] have developed an index to detect
work by [17], explored the effectiveness of deep extreme ma- the normal and depression subjects using a single integer de-
chine learning (DEML) on two brain-computer interface veloped using nonlinear features. Bairy et al. [24] used fea-
(BCI) data sets. They have highlighted the advantages of tures extracted from the linear predictive coding (LPC) resid-
DEML in classifying the BCI data sets. The paper [18] pro- uals to discriminate depression signals from normal EEG sig-
posed a deep learning network with 100 hidden nodes in each nals. Recently, Acharya et al. [29] developed a 13-layer CNN
layer to detect emotions from EEG signals. They achieved a model to detect depression accurately.
low classification performance with an accuracy of 53.42%. The previous studies on depression detection have gener-
Supratak et al. [19] used DeepSleepNet comprising of CNN ally been performed using hand-crafted feature extraction
and bidirectional-LSTM model learn sleep stage scoring fea- techniques and shallow structured classifiers trained on these
tures of single-channel EEG data for automated sleep stage features. The main motivation for this paper is to enable a
classification. completely automated detection of depression using raw
Oh et al. [20] presented an automated classification of five EEG signals. The feature extraction/selection and classifica-
classes of arrhythmia using unprocessed (with noisy) ECG tion operations were executed automatically using a single
signals using a combination of CNN and LSTM structure with EEG signals as input. Furthermore, the devel-
architectures. In another study wavelet transform based oped structure can learn both local features and long-term
bidirectional LSTM network was used [21]. In [22], deep dependencies for input signals. Hence, in this study a CNN-
1D-CNN attained an overall recognition accuracy of 91.33% LSTM based hybrid deep learning model is proposed to detect
for the detection of 17 classes of cardiac arrhythmia. The the depression automatically. This model provides the se-
depression is a serious medical illness and negatively affects quence learning with LSTM block and enables the represen-
the daily activities of a patient. Since it is a treatable disease, tation of input signals through CNN layers. Thus, an end-to-
early detection of the disease is important. To address this end structure for EEG signals has been presented which pro-
issue, several study has been conducted [23–29, 44–46]. vides learning on both local features and long-term dependen-
Table 1 provides the overview of the automated depression cies. One of the main contributions of the study is that the
detection system using EEG signals. In order to detect single proposed CNN-LSTM model provides high performance on
channel depression EEG signals, Bachmann at al. [27] used the signal data which is obtained from right and left hemi-
combination of linear and nonlinear methods. Puthankattil and spheres of the brain to detect depression using EEG signals.
Joseph [28] used relative wavelet energy and entropy features The CNN-LSTM model provides an automatic detection with

Table 1 Overview of previous studies on automated depression detection using EEG signals

Authors Year Dataset Feature Extraction Methods Classifier Accuracy (%)

[44] 2012 15 normal Wavelet filter bank and fractal dimensions EPNN 91.30
15 depressed
[28] 2012 15 normal Relative wavelet energy ANN 98.11
15 depressed
[45] 2014 15 normal Wavelet packet and non-linear features PNN 98.20 (Left)
15 depressed 99.50 (Right)
[46] 2015 15 normal Non-linear features SVM 98.00
15 depressed
[25] 2017 30 normal Alpha interhemispheric asymmetry and power of frequency bands SVM 98.40
33 depressed
[24] 2017 15 normal Higher order spectra features Bagged Tree 94.30
15 depressed
[26] 2017 20 normal Kernel Eigen-filter-bank common spatial pattern SVM 81.23
20 depressed
[29] 2018 15 normal End-to-end CNN 93.54 (Left)
15 depressed 95.96 (Right)
Present Study 2019 15 normal End-to-end CNN-LSTM 97.66 (Left)
15 depressed 99.12 (Right)
J Med Syst (2019) 43:205 Page 3 of 12 205

EEG Recording Representation

Raw EEG Signals
Learning
Nasion
FP1-T3

Left
FP1
FPz
FP2
Convolutional
FP2-T4 Neural
Networks

Right
Sequence Automatic
T3 Cz T4
Learning Recognition

Normal

Long-Short Fully
Term Memory Connected
Depressed
Oz

Inion

Fig. 1 An illustration of the EEG-based automatic depression detection system

EEG data without requiring any feature extraction or selec- Depression dataset
tion. Thus, an effective and state-of-art deep learning approach
can be used in the field of healthcare to detect the depression. In this study, we have used the same normal and depression
The structure of the remainder of the paper can be summa- EEG signals used by Acharya et al. [29] (taken from Calicut,
rized as follows: In section BMaterials and method^, the Kerala, India). The EEG signals were acquired from 15 nor-
dataset used in the study and proposed CNN-LSTM model mal and 15 depressed subjects from left half (FP1-T3 channel)
are presented. In section BExperimental results^, experimental and right half (FP2-T4 channel) of the brain. The EEG signals
results are evaluated. In section BDiscussion^, the results and were sampled at a sampling rate of 256 Hz and the power line
comparison with other studies on the same dataset are present- noise was eliminated with a 50 Hz notch filter. Artifacts
ed. The clinical implication of the work is presented in the resulting from muscles and eye movements within the EEG
conclusion section. signals were manually removed by experts. The EEG data of
30 subjects were evaluated in two separate categories as left
and right hemisphere EEG data belonging to normal and de-
pressed classes. It consists of 4798 depression and 4318 nor-
Materials and method
mal EEG records (files) with each file having 2000 samples.
The detailed information about the data is presented in
In this study, the EEG signals obtained from the right and left
Table 2. The illustrations of some signal samples in the data
hemispheres of the brain are used for EEG-based automatic
are shown in Fig. 2.
depression recognition process. The raw EEG signals are ap-
plied to the CNN model. The feature maps obtained from the
output of the CNN model are fed to LSTM as inputs and The proposed deep model architecture
sequence learning is performed on these signals. The LSTM
outputs are passed through fully connected layers to ensure the It can be seen from the previous work [29], CNN model is
automatic detection of depression EEG signals. Thus, a CNN- good in extracting temporal features and poor in learning se-
LSTM based method is developed to detect depression in a quential information. To overcome this problem, we built a
hybrid manner involving both the representation and sequence new hybrid architecture consisting of CNN and LSTM
learning stages. A block diagram representation of the method models. The architecture of the proposed system is illustrated
used in the study is given in Fig.1. in Fig. 3. The CNN learns the local features of input EEG

Table 2 The details of EEG

signals used in the study Class Number Right hemisphere Left hemisphere EEG Total number
of subjects EEG signals (FP2-T4) signals (FP1-T3) of data

Depressed 15 2398 2400 4798

Normal 15 2159 2159 4318
Total 30 4557 4559 9116
 205 Page 4 of 12 J Med Syst (2019) 43:205

Fig. 2 Sample EEG signals: a Normal Depression

400 100
right hemisphere normal, b right
hemisphere depression, c left 50
200

Amplitude
hemisphere normal and d left

Amplitude
0
hemisphere depression 0
-50
-200 -100

-400 -150
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Sample Sample
(a) (b)
Normal Depressi on
200 100

100 50

Amplitude
Amplitude

0
0
-100
-50
-200

-300 -100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Sample Sample
(c) (d)

signals (representation learning), LSTM learns long-term de- Representation learning

pendencies and processes these features in a sequential man-
ner (sequence learning). In Table 3, each layer of the proposed The CNNs are combination of the popular convolution pro-
CNN-LSTM network and the parameters of these layers are cess and neural networks. In our CNN architecture, presented
given in detail. The filter number of the model and the param- in Fig. 1, there are four convolution layers and two max-
eter selection, such as kernel size, are performed using the pooling layers. The main purpose of the convolution process
values obtained from the previous CNN models [16, 21, 22, is to extract features or information from a given signal. The
48] and using the brute-force technique. Training and valida- mathematical convolution process is defined in eq. (1).
tion curves are examined and the most appropriate parameters ∞
are determined. aðt Þ ¼ ðx*wÞðt Þ ¼ ∫ xðbÞwðt−bÞdb ð1Þ
−∞

Fig. 3 An overview of the

proposed architecture Input EEG Signals

Convolution ReLU

Convolution ReLU Convolutional Neural Network

(Representation Learning)
MaxPooling

Dropout Deep Local Features of

EEG signals
Convolution ReLU

Convolution ReLU
MaxPooling

LSTM
Long Short Term Memory
Dense ReLU
(Sequence Learning)
Dropout
Dense SoftMax Output
J Med Syst (2019) 43:205 Page 5 of 12 205

Table 3 Detailed information

about the proposed CNN-LSTM No Names of layers Kernel size Parameters of layers Number of parameters
deep model
1 Conv1D 64 × 5 Strides = 1, Activation = ReLU 384
2 Conv1D 128 × 3 Strides = 1, Activation = ReLU 24,704
3 MaxPooling1D 2 Strides = 2 0
4 Dropout – Rate = 0.2 0
5 Conv1D 128 × 13 Strides = 1, Activation = ReLU 213,120
6 Conv1D 32 × 7 Strides = 1, Activation = ReLU 28,704
7 LSTM – Unit Size = 32, Return Sequences = True 8320
8 Flatten – – 0
9 Dense – Unit Size = 64, Activation = ReLU 1,001,536
10 Dropout – Rate = 0.2 0
11 Dense – Unit size = 2, Activation = SoftMax 130

Here, x represents input EEG data, w is filter and a is feature signals can be learned by deep learning techniques. The
map. For each convolution layer, we have chosen 64, 128, 128 aim of sequential learning is to model short-term and long-
and 32 specific filters (also called kernels) with different filter term memory. Although, the short-term memory is very
sizes of 5 × 1, 3 × 1, 13 × 1 and 7 × 1 respectively. These filters well modeled by standard recurrent neural networks
are convolved with the input matrix of signal data to produce (RNN), it cannot be effective in long-term dependencies
feature maps after the convolution layer. We used rectified lin- due to vanishing gradient problems. The biggest problem
ear unit (ReLU) function after each convolution layer. As given encountered when training artificial neural networks with
in the eq. (2), the ReLU function takes the value 0 for the back propagation is the vanishing gradient problem [30],
negative inputs and the x value for the positive inputs x. which makes it difficult to train the previous layers and learn
the network. To overcome this long-term dependency prob-
f ðxÞ ¼ maxð0; xÞ ð2Þ lem, there is a need for neural networks that can remember
the input information given over a long time and decide
The extracted feature maps will be the new inputs to the which data to remember. In 1997, Hochreiter and
next layer. The maximum pooling technique is used in the Schmidhuber [31] proposed LSTM to meet this
MaxPooling1D layer to reduce the input size, memory us- requirement.
age and number of parameters. Finally, for the binary-clas- In the LSTM architecture illustrated in Fig. 4, unlike the
sification, the predictive class probabilities of the inputs RNN architecture, there are special hidden units called mem-
given by using the Softmax function are presented as out- ory cells that are used to remember the previous input for a
put. We also used dropout technique to prevent the proposed long time. An LSTM architecture contains forget, learn, re-
network from the overfitting problem. member and use gates that determine whether an input is so
important that it can be saved. In the LSTM unit, four different
Sequence learning functions such as sigmoid (σ), hyperbolic tangent (tanh), mul-
tiplication (×), and sum (+) are used, which make it easier to
The EEG signal can be seen as time series signals of brain update the weights during the back propagation process.
activities. The EEG signals over a specific period are used to More formally, sequential learning approach over EEG
diagnose various disorders. For this purpose, sequential time series is defined as follows:

Fig. 4 An illustration of LSTM

architecture
Ct-1 × + Ct

× tanh

tanh

ht-1 × ht

Xt (EEG signal features extracted from CNN model)

 205 Page 6 of 12 J Med Syst (2019) 43:205

Fig. 5 Sketch of data partitioning All Data (100%)

employed to create the model
Training Validation Testing
Data Data Data

70% 15% 15%

Paremeter Unseen
Model Training
Optimization Data

Tuned Weights
Trained Detection
Model

used by the model during training. Therefore, the test perfor-

nt ¼ tanhðW n ½ht−1 ; xt  þ bn Þ ð3Þ mance of the trained model can be observed more effectively
through test data. The number of data files obtained from the
it ¼ σðW i ½ht−1 ; xt  þ bi Þ ð4Þ right hemisphere is 4557. Among this, we have used 3189


f t ¼ σ W f ½ht−1 ; xt  þ b f ð5Þ files for training, 684 for validation and 684 for testing.
Similarly, the total number of data from the left hemisphere
C t ¼ C t−1 f t þ nt it ð6Þ is 4559 files. We have used 3191 files for training, 684 for
validation and 684 for testing. Experiment is performed on a
U t ¼ tanhðW u C t−1 f t þ bu Þ ð7Þ
Linux Server (Ubuntu 16.04.4) with a NVDIA GTX 1080
V t ¼ σðW V ½ht−1 ; xt  þ bV Þ ð8Þ GPU. The model is implemented with Python using Keras
deep learning libraries. General hyper-parameter settings of
We suppose that there are N local features, {x1, x2 … xN}, the model are given in Table 4.
extracted from our CNN model. The xt is input signal feature Experimental studies are performed separately for right and left
for time t, short term memory value ht − 1, long term memory hemisphere EEG signals. The CNN-LSTM model is primarily
value Ct − 1, weight matrix Wn, bias bn, ignore factor it, forget trained on training set that includes normal and depression classes.
factor ft; ntit is the output of learn gate, Ct − 1ft is the output of By observing the performance of the model during training and
forget gate, Ct is the output of remember gate and UtVt is the validation sets, we make sure that overfitting does not occur during
output of use gate. training. Table 5 shows the performance of the CNN-LSTM mod-
el for right hemisphere EEG signals for 15 epochs.
Accuracy and loss values indicates that, there is no
overfitting during training. At the end of the training, the
Experimental results model for the right hemisphere EEG signals reached an ac-
curacy of 99.34% during training and an accuracy of
In this study, EEG signals containing 2000 samples obtained 98.98% using validation set. Training loss value decreased
from right and left hemispheres of brain are used for automat- from 0.41 to 0.02 and validation loss decreased from 0.09 to
ed depression detection. Raw signals belonging to 30 subjects 0.05. In addition, the training took an average of 52 s for
are scaled to a range of [0, 1]. The random splitting and 10- each epoch. At the end of the 15th epoch, the training per-
fold cross validation techniques are employed to evaluate the formances of the model for the left hemisphere EEG signals
deep leaning model.
Table 4 Various parameter settings used to create the model
Random splitting tests
Parameters Values

In random splitting technique, the data are divided randomly in to Optimizer Adam
training, validation and testing. It is a widely used technique espe- Learning Rate and Decay 1e-4
cially in deep learning studies where data is large. In this study, the Loss Function Categorical cross entropy
dataset for each group is divided into 70% training, 15% validation Metrics Accuracy
and 15% test sets and this procedure is shown in Fig. 5. Batch Size 64
The training and validation datasets are used to train the Epochs 15
deep learning model. The test set is the data which was never
J Med Syst (2019) 43:205 Page 7 of 12 205

Table 5 Training performances

for CNN-LSTM model using Epochs Time (Second) Training Validation Training loss Validation loss
right hemisphere (Fp2-T4) EEG accuracy (%) accuracy (%)
signals for various epochs
1 59 82.85 96.78 0.4123 0.0997
2 51 96.99 97.95 0.0932 0.0820
3 51 97.59 98.39 0.0800 0.0637
4 51 98.28 98.68 0.0604 0.0653
5 51 98.31 98.83 0.0599 0.0614
6 52 98.37 98.39 0.0522 0.0682
7 52 98.62 98.54 0.0503 0.0640
8 52 98.65 98.25 0.0492 0.0742
9 51 98.34 98.83 0.0537 0.0537
10 52 99.00 98.68 0.0405 0.0625
11 52 99.18 98.39 0.0363 0.0639
12 52 99.15 98.83 0.0351 0.0541
13 52 99.25 98.83 0.0294 0.0569
14 52 99.34 98.68 0.0279 0.0614
15 52 99.34 98.98 0.0275 0.0520
Average 52.13 97.55 98.46 0.0738 0.0655

have reached an accuracy of 98.37% during training, have been used to evaluate performance of the model. The
98.68% during validation, 0.04 training loss and 0.06 vali- calculations used in the study as follows; sensitivity (TP /
dation losses. The graphical representations of these perfor- (TP + FN)), specificity (TN / (FP + TN)), precision (TP /
mance values are presented in Fig. 6. (TP + FP)), and accuracy ((TP + TN) / (FP + FN)).
After the training of the CNN-LSTM model, it is tested Tables 6 and 7 shows the performance values for right
using unused test data set. True positive (TP), false posi- and left hemisphere EEG signals during testing of the
tive (FP), and false negative (FN) statistical measurements model.

Fig. 6 Performance graphs for the Right (Fp2-T4) Accuracy Graph Right (Fp2-T4) Loss Graph
100 0.5
right hemisphere (Fp2-T4) and
left hemisphere (Fp1-T3) EEG
0.4
signals of the CNN-LSTM mod- 95
Training Accuracy Training loss
Accuracy (%)

el: a) Accuracy values of right

Validation Accuracy 0.3 Validation loss
hemisphere EEG signals, b) Loss
Loss

90
values for right hemisphere EEG
0.2
signals, c) Accuracy values for
left hemisphere EEG signals, and 85
0.1
d) Loss values for left hemisphere
EEG signals
80 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Epochs Epochs
(a) (b)
Left (Fp1-T3) Accuracy Graph Left (Fp1-T3) Loss Graph
100 0.4
0.35
Training loss
95 0.3
Training Accuracy Validation loss
Accuracy (%)

0.25
Loss

Validation Accuracy
90 0.2
0.15
85 0.1
0.05
80 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Epochs
Epochs
(d)
(c)
 205 Page 8 of 12 J Med Syst (2019) 43:205

Table 6 Performance values

obtained during testing the model Classes Predicted
with right hemisphere (Fp2-T4)
EEG data Depression Normal Accuracy Precision Sensitivity Specificity
(%) (%) (%) (%)

Actual Depression 342 5 99.12 99.70 98.55 99.70

Normal 1 336 98.53 99.70 98.55

The CNN-LSTM model incorrectly classified only 6 of the cross validation with both EEG signals.
684 data for the right hemisphere EEG signals and reaches the
highest accuracy of 99.12%. The sensitivity of the depression The CNN-LSTM model, using right hemisphere signals in
and normal class are 98.55% and 99.70% respectively. The the 10-fold tests, misclassified only 19 out -of 2250 depression
accuracy of the model for the left hemisphere EEG signals is data. But 38 out of 2420 depression data are incorrectly classi-
97.66%. The sensitivity of the depression and normal classes fied using left hemisphere EEG data. Thus, 10-fold cross vali-
are 97.03% and 98.27%, respectively. It can be noted from the dation for right and left hemisphere EEG signals have yielded
results obtained in the above that, CNN-LSTM model yielded accuracy of 98.95% and 97.76% respectively. These results are
the highest performance in detecting the depression using comparable with the experimental results obtained using the
EEG signals. Besides, our experimental results indicate that, random splitting technique. The performance obtained using
right hemisphere (Fp2-T4) EEG signals show a higher perfor- right hemisphere with random splitting is better than the 10-
mance than the left hemisphere EEG signals. The trained fold cross validation test and the performance of the 10-fold
CNN-LSTM model took approximately 0.005 s to classify a cross validation for left hemisphere is slightly higher.
single EEG input data of 2000 samples. An EEG signal applied to the input of the trained CNN-
LSTM network is passed through the CNN and LSTM layers,
10-fold cross validation tests respectively, and the classification step is performed on the
feature maps obtained from these layers. Figure 8 shows the
The other common technique used in the evaluation of models output of a sample depression EEG signal obtained from CNN
in the field of machine learning is k-fold cross-validation. In and LSTM layers.
this technique, the data is randomly divided into k equal parts.
k-1 parts are used in the training phase of the model and the
remaining part is used in the testing phase. This process re- Discussion
peats until all parts are evaluated in the test phase. In this
study, k = 10 is selected and the data are randomly divided In this study, a hybrid deep learning based automatic depres-
into 10 equal sections. Figure 7 shows the graphs of the per- sion detection system was proposed. Summary of automated
formance values obtained by the 10-fold cross validation test depression systems developed using deep learning techniques
for both EEG signal groups. with EEG signals is given in Table 9.
The performance criteria for the right hemisphere EEG It can be seen from Table 9 that the accuracy and sen-
signals are above 98% for all folds and average accuracy value sitivity values of the proposed method are higher than the
is 98.94%. The CNN-LSTM model performed using left previous studies. Acharya et al. [29] obtained 95.49%
hemisphere EEG signals showed slightly lower performance accuracy for right hemisphere EEG signals, while we
than right hemisphere EEG signals. The average accuracy have obtained 99.12% and 98.95% accuracy using the
value of this model is 97.82%. Table 8 presents the overall same database with random-splitting and 10-fold CV, re-
performance and confusion matrix obtained using 10-fold spectively. Similarly, Acharya et al. [29] achieved 93.54%

Table 7 Performance values

obtained during testing the model Classes Predicted
with left hemisphere (Fp1-T3)
EEG data Depression Normal Accuracy Precision Sensitivity Specificity
(%) (%) (%) (%)

Actual Depression 327 10 97.66 98.19 97.03 98.27

Normal 6 341 97.15 98.27 97.03
J Med Syst (2019) 43:205 Page 9 of 12 205

Fig. 7 The graphs of CNN- Right Hemisphere (Fp2-T4)

LSTM model using 10-fold cross 100 Sensitivity Specificity Precision Accuracy
validation: a right hemisphere
EEG signals, b left hemisphere 99
EEG signals

Value (%)
98

97

96

95

(a)
Left Hemisphere (Fp1-T3)
Sensitivity Specificity Precision Accuracy
100

98
Value (%)

96

94

92

90

(b)

accuracy for the left group, but we have achieved 97.66% LSTM network learns sequences from these features. In
and 97.66% with random-splitting and 10-fold CV, re- few state-of-the-art studies given in Table 1, wavelet [28,
spectively. Our right hemisphere accuracies are higher 44, 45], HOS [24], and non-linear [46] feature extraction
than the left as reported by Acharya et al. [29]. This is techniques have been used. These approaches are com-
because the activation of frontal cortex of right hemi- plex, time consuming and require experience. But in our
sphere is higher during depression than left hemisphere study, this feature extraction is performed by the model
[47]. Hence, right hemisphere EEG will contribute more itself. In addition, the proposed deep detection model con-
than the left hemisphere. sists of multiple layers instead of shallow classifiers such
The most important advantage of this study is its high as SVM and ANN is presented.
performance in detecting depression by using both local Hence, this proposed CNN-LSTM model has achieved re-
characteristics and long-term dependencies of the EEG markable performance with single-channel EEG data obtained
signals. The CNN networks learn local properties while from right and left hemispheres of the brain. Therefore, CNN-

Table 8 Overall performance values obtained during 10-fold cross validation with EEG data

Predicted Classes Performances (%)

Depression Normal Accuracy Precision Sensitivity Specificity

Right (Fp2-T4) Actual Classes Depression 2231 19 98.95 99.16 98.72 99.17
Normal 29 2271 98.74 99.17 98.72
Left (Fp1-T3) Depression 2382 38 97.76 98.43 97.38 98.19
Normal 64 2066 97.00 98.19 97.38
 205 Page 10 of 12 J Med Syst (2019) 43:205

Input EEG Signals

200
Right (Fp2-T4)

Amplitude
-200
0 Samples 2000
(a)

Learned Representations Learned Sequences

0.2 0.1 0.05 0

0 0 -0.15 -0.3
0 500 0 500 0 500 0 500

0.4 0.6 0.4 0.3

0 0 -0.2 -0.1
0 500 0 500 0 500 0 500

1.5 0.4 0.4 0.1

0 0 -0.2 -0.3
0 500 0 500 0 500 0 500
0.3 0.15 0 0.15

0 0 -0.4 0
0 500 0 500 0 500 0 500

(b) (c)
Fig. 8 Output obtained at CNN and LSTM when the original depression EEG signal is fed: a original depression EEG signal, b features obtained at the
output of CNN and c sequences obtained at the output of LSTM

LSTM model is accurate and robust in detecting the depression developed model is computationally intensive. In future, we
using EEG signals. The proposed model detects unknown EEG intend to extend this work, using more number of subjects
signals fast and accurately. Therefore, the proposed model is taken from diverse background and the computational com-
useful and can be easily implemented for clinical applications. plexity can be reduced using graphical processing units
The main drawback of this study is that, we have used few (GPUs). In future, we intend to improve the results applying
subjects (15 normal and 15 depression). In addition, the more advanced deep learning approaches with more dataset.

Table 9 Summary of automated

depression systems developed Study EEG Signals Method Accuracy (%) Sensitivity (%)
using deep learning techniques
with EEG signals Acharya et al. [29] Right (Fp2-T4) • 13-layer CNN 95.49 94.99
Left (Fp1-T3) • 10-fold CV 93.54 91.89
The proposed Right (Fp2-T4) • CNN-LSTM 99.12 99.11
Left (Fp1-T3) • Random splitting (70, 15,15) 97.66 97.67
J Med Syst (2019) 43:205 Page 11 of 12 205

Additionally, the CNN-LSTM layers will be evaluated using abnormality classification using MR images. Cogn. Syst. Res.,
2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2018.12.007.
classifiers such as SVM.
7. Bhat, S., Acharya, U. R., Hagiwara, Y., Dadmehr, N., and Adeli, H.,
Parkinson’s disease: Cause factors, measurable indicators, and early
diagnosis. Comput. Biol. Med., 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Conclusion compbiomed.2018.09.008.
8. Acharya, U. R., Vinitha Sree, S., Swapna, G., Martis, R. J., and
Suri, J. S., Automated EEG analysis of epilepsy: A review.
A novel depression detection system based on EEG signals is Knowledge-Based Syst 45:147–165, 2013. https://doi.org/10.
presented. This model consists of a combination of LSTM 1016/j.knosys.2013.02.014.
network that is effective in learning long-term dependencies 9. Janga Vijaykumar, P., and Sreenivasareddy, E., A review on
Machine Learning Techniques for Neurological disorders estima-
present in the CNN architecture, which is powerful in
tion by Analyzing EEG Waves. Int J Trend Sci Res Dev., 2018.
extracting the local features. The proposed CNN-LSTM net- 10. Acharya, U. R., Hagiwara, Y., Deshpande, S. N., Suren, S., Koh, J.
work is developed using EEG signals obtained from the right E. W., Oh, S. L., Arunkumar, N., Ciaccio, E. J., and Lim, C. M.,
and left hemispheres of the brain of 30 subjects. Our proposed Characterization of focal EEG signals: A review. Futur. Gener.
model is able to detect the depression with an accuracy of Comput. Syst., 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2018.08.044.
11. Petrosian, A., Prokhorov, D., Homan, R., Dasheiff, R., and Wunsch,
99.12% and sensitivity of 99.11% from the right (Fp2-T4) side D., Recurrent neural network based prediction of epileptic seizures
hemisphere EEG signals. However, more robust models can in intra- and extracranial EEG. Neurocomputing., 2000. https://doi.
be developed using huge database obtained from diverse org/10.1016/S0925-2312(99)00126-5.
races. The developed model can be used to detect the early 12. Mirowski, P., Madhavan, D., LeCun, Y., and Kuzniecky, R.,
Classification of patterns of EEG synchronization for seizure pre-
stage of depression and other neurological disorders using
diction. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.
EEG signals. 2009.09.002.
13. Acharya, U. R., Oh, S. L., Hagiwara, Y., Tan, J. H., and Adeli, H.,
Compliance with ethical standards Deep convolutional neural network for the automated detection and
diagnosis of seizure using EEG signals. Comput. Biol. Med. 100:
270–278, 2018.
Conflict of interest All authors declare that there is no conflict of interest
in this work. 14. Wulsin, D. F., Gupta, J. R., Mani, R., Blanco, J. A., and Litt, B.,
Modeling electroencephalography waveforms with semi-
supervised deep belief nets: Fast classification and anomaly mea-
Ethical approval All procedures performed in studies involving human surement. J. Neural Eng., 2011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-2560/
participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institu- 8/3/036015.
tional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki 15. Stober, S., Sternin, A., Owen, A. M., and Grahn, J. A., Deep feature
declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. learning for EEG recordings. arXiv preprint arXiv:1511.04306,
We have obtained the ethical approval for depression data from Medical
2015.
College Calicut, Kerala, India.
16. Yıldırım, Ö., Baloglu, U. B., and Acharya, U. R., A deep
convolutional neural network model for automated identification
Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual of abnormal EEG signals. Neural Comput. & Applic.:1–12, 2018.
participants included in the study. 17. Ding, S., Zhang, N., Xu, X., Guo, L., and Zhang, J., Deep Extreme
Learning Machine and Its Application in EEG Classification. Math.
Probl. Eng., 2015. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/129021.
18. Jirayucharoensak, S., Pan-Ngum, S., and Israsena, P., EEG-Based
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