Science Reviewer

Proteins – composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

What are the roles and functions of proteins?
 channels in membranes – control the movement of molecules in and out
of the cell
 structural molecules – for example, making up hair or muscle in animals
 hormones – to regulate the activity of cells
 antibodies – in the immune system
 enzymes – to act as catalysts in biological systems.
DNA:
 Double-stranded, helical molecule
 Made up of four types of nucleotides: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
thymine
 Carries genetic information of an organism
 Process of DNA replication creates a copy of DNA before cell division

RNA:
 Single-stranded molecule
 Three main types: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Involved in the process of protein synthesis
 mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome
 tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome
 rRNA helps form the structure of the ribosome

Transcription:
 Process by which DNA is used as a template to synthesize RNA
 RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA and adds
complementary nucleotides to the RNA strand
Translation:
 Process by which the genetic information in mRNA is used to synthesize
a protein
 mRNA is read by a ribosome
 Ribosome matches codons to the appropriate tRNA molecules
 Ribosome links amino acids together to form a polypeptide chain
Ribosome – the site of protein synthesis
There are 3 types of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- transcribes the DNA nucleotide bases to RNA nucleotide bases
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- binds the mRNA and tRNA to ensure that codons are translated correctly
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- translates the mRNA codons into the correct amino acids

Codons and anticodons:

Codons: These are groups of three letters (A, C, G, or U) in mRNA that code for
a specific amino acid. There are 64 possible codons, but only 20 amino acids
are used to build proteins.
Anticodons: These are groups of three letters (A, C, G, or U) in tRNA that match
up with a specific codon. The anticodon carries the correct amino acid to the
ribosome during translation.
Together, codons and anticodons work together to make sure that the correct
amino acids are used to build proteins based on the information stored in DNA.

Parts of the cell:

Cell membrane: A thin, protective layer that surrounds the cell and controls
what goes in and out.
Cytoplasm: A jelly-like substance that fills the cell and supports its organelles.
Nucleus: The control center of the cell that holds genetic information (DNA).
Mitochondria: Powerhouses of the cell that make energy (ATP).
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): A network of tubes and sacs that helps make and
transport proteins and lipids.
Ribosomes: Small structures that make proteins.
Golgi apparatus: A packaging center that processes and distributes proteins
and lipids.
Lysosomes: Recycling centers that break down waste materials.
Cytoskeleton: A framework of proteins that helps maintain cell shape and
enables movement.

Mutation
Mutation - are changes to a DNA sequence. Just like the information in DNA as
a group of sentences, mutations are mistakes in spelling of the words that form
those sentences.
Mutagens - are agents that cause alteration in the DNA and can lead to
permanent mutations in the DNA sequence depending on the ability of an
organism to repair the damage.
Gene mutations are changes in the DNA or RNA that can lead to different types
of substitution mutations, including nonsense, missense, and silent mutations:

 Nonsense mutation results in a stop codon, which can stop the

translation process and prevent the correct protein from being produced.
 Missense mutation changes one nucleotide base, resulting in a different
amino acid being produced in protein synthesis.
Two types of missense mutation:
Conservative missense mutation: the new amino acid has similar
properties to the original amino acid.
Non-conservative missense mutation: the new amino acid has different
properties from the original amino acid.

 Silent mutation changes a nucleotide base, but the same amino acid is
still produced because multiple codons can code for the same amino
acid.
Frameshift mutation:

 Disorganizes the normal sequence of codons

 Caused by insertion or deletion of one or more nitrogenous bases
 Number of bases added or deleted is not a multiple of three
 Leads to altered reading frame of codons
 Can affect many amino acids and alter the protein chain
 Three nitrogenous bases deletion or insertion leads to either an extra or
missing amino acid
 Results in abnormal protein with improper amino acid sequence that can
be longer or shorter than normal
Chromosomal mutation refers to changes in the structure or number of
chromosomes in an organism's cells. There are several kinds of chromosomal
mutations:
1. Deletion- happens when a base is deleted from the nitrogen base
sequence.
2. Duplication – a segment of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in
extra genes.
3. Inversion - when a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end.
4. Insertion- the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a
DNA sequence.
5. Translocation- segments of two chromosomes are exchanged.
Effects of Mutation:

 Mutated genes can lead to inherited disorders, such as sickle cell

anemia, albinism, cystic fibrosis, and Down syndrome
 Sickle cell anemia is caused by a substitution mutation in the gene
responsible for hemoglobin production, leading to the production of
sickle-shaped blood cells and symptoms such as anemia and pain crises
 Albinism is caused by a deletion mutation in the tyrosinase gene,
resulting in reduced or absent melanin production in the skin, hair, and
eyes
 Cystic fibrosis is caused by a deletion mutation in the CFTR gene,
leading to the production of an incorrect protein
 Down syndrome is caused by a translocation during meiosis that results
in the transfer of most of chromosome 21 onto chromosome 14, leading
to cognitive and physical impairments