Chapter 1

Define critical thinking

-

employs intellectual approaches and competence which are used as conceptual

tools in the process of making justifiable decisions about beliefs and point of

view

gives individual opportunity and confidence to participate in argument

-

decision making and life situations as an active agent .

includes , deductive , inductive , and

-

recognising , evaluating analysing .

Process of thinking growth

1.) School : Lower order
thinking
↓ thinking at the next level

2) College / Uni :
Higher order thinking

critical Thinking standards

.

precision
-

accuracy
-

relevance

consistency
-

Logical correctness
-

completeness
-
fairness
-

clarity
Benefits of critical thinking
-

improve classroom performance

→
understanding arguments and belief of others

→
critically evaluating arguments and belief .

→
developing and defending one 's argument and belief
-
in workplace
→
analytical skills ,
effective communication skills , flexibility and tolerance

→ research and inquiry skills

-

in life
→ avoid making foolish personal decision
think carefully , clearly , and
→
logically .

democratic
→ promote vital role in promoting processes

critical thinking can free us from biases and unexamined assumptions .

Barriers to Critical Thinking Characteristic Of Critical Thinker

Bias clarity precision accuracy thinking
a •

, , ,

prejudice Skilled at understanding analysing 4

- .

superstition evaluating
-

peer pressure
.

beliefs on fact d evidence .

poor reading skills .

are aware of biases d preconception
-
narrow minded -

think independently
•

denial .

perverance to pursue truth

.
selective memory
-
fear of change
 2
Chapter
Fallacies
-
when
argument contains one or more fallacies .

-
a logical fallacy is an argument that contains mistake in
reasoning .

-
2 Common classification
-
fallacies of relevance
-
fallacies of insufficient evidence

concept of Relevance
positive relevant to another statement
-

statement be
positively relevant to another statement even if it
•

can

false ex .

Jeremy is a man . So ,
Jeremy likes car .

•
statement is relevant to another often depends on the context .

ex . All humans have eleven fingers in total Jane .

is a human .

Therefore Jane have eleven fingers .

relevant to another statement ex Jane

-

negatively .
is eleven . so
have 9 years of
Jane likely working experience
-

logically irrelevant to another statement Oxygen

ex -
is essential for

us . Therefore ,
you have to do
your assignment
.

Fallacies Of Relevance
occurs when an
arguer offers reasons that are logically irrelevant to
his or her conclusion .

1 . Personal attack lad hominem )

2- LOOK who's talking
3. TWO wrongs makes a right
4- Bandwagon argument
5. Hasty generalisation
 =
PERSON A- K ATTACK eaaddhhoommiinnemmj
- when claim or
argument is rejected by attacking the person rather
than the person 's claim .

ex .
Jane said that she won't take Joey into her
group for the project
for Jeremy instead of Lisa
because Joey voted .

"
22 : ¢80K WW # ⑧ $ TAK# I # $
-

arguer rejects another person 's argument or claim because that

person fails to practice what he / she preaches

ex .
Jane told her mother that being healthy is important and
" "
her mother answered her what are
eating ,
she said , instant hood

33 :
TTWW ☆ON# $ ☒ ☒ ☒ ¥ ☒ ☒1$#IT
-

arguer attempts to justify a wrongful act by claiming that

some other act is just as bad or worse .

ex .
since
Joey only did a little for the assignment and did not

cooperate with Jane . Jane decides to remove her name from

the assignment

44 .
. 1133 A-☒ ☒WWAA ⑥ ☒ AAR UMM# ☒I
-

argument plays on person 's desire to be popular accepted ,

, or

valued rather than appealing to logically relevant reasons or

evidence .

ex . Since going to the escape room is popular , I should also

go
.

55 : * A-$1T # ☒ EM# ☆ ☒ KISS#1-1-10 #

Arguer uses and odd rule to draw conclusion about
-
a group .

ex My brother is bad at hancraft so was dad All men

my are
.
.
,

bad at handcraft .
Chapter 3

Fallacies of Insufficient evidence

1 .
Appeal to
Ignorance
2- False alternatives
3- Loaded question
4 .

Hasty generalization
5-
Inconsistency

11 . A- *☒ E- ☒ K TO 1 ☒ ORANGE

to lack of evidence against some claims as positive

arguer appeals a
-

evidence that the claim is true / false .

ex .
There isn't any dragon on earth before .
Since no one has proven .

There is dragon on earth before . Since no one has proven there isn't .

22 : # ☒ 4$ # A- KIT #☆ ☒ AA# E- §
-
committed when arguer poses a false dichotomy
Jane 's manager ask them to vote for extra hours
ex
working or
-

extra work for them .

The manager said you guys obviously don't
want extra working hours so
you will have extra work and you
have to finish before going back
-

guys .

33 . K A- ☒ E- ☒ ☒⇐ $#⑧ ☒$
-
posed where questions contain an unfair or questionable
assumption
ex . what cap were you wearing while stealing Jane 's purse ?
* i
* A-$1T # ☒ EMI# ☆ A- KISS#1-1-10 #
-

Arguer uses and odd rule to draw conclusion about a group .

ex My brother is bad at hancraft so was

my dad
.
,
. All men are

bad at handcraft .

55 "
l☒ ☒ $18 -1T¥ #EH
-

arguer asserts inconsistent premises , assert a premise that is

inconsistent with his / her conclusion .

ex .
Jane : Fashion trends is boring .

Joey : Didn't you get the latest louis Vuitton bag that

everyone wants ?
Jane : yeah , so what ?

Fallacies Advertisements Common Fallacies

Evaluating in :

1- scare tactics

2 .

Fallacy Of Questionable Cause

3.
Fallacy Of Popular Appeal
4. Snob appeal
5. of Appeal Inappropriate Authority
Fallacy to

1 :
$@ ☆☆ E- IT ☒**$
-
used to create anxiety or
play on our fears , insecurities or sense
,

of shame .

the advertisement for skin make Jane feels shame on

ex .

whitening
her dark skin .
22 : F-☒ 44*841 0¥ ☒ E=$Il0☒AAB3k¥ @☒☒$#
False expectation that wonderful such as
-

something is
becoming more

beautiful ,
thinner , more popular or happier .

ex .
Jane saw the shampoo advertisement and said her hair will

become more silk er and she will be beautiful after she used it .

33 : F-☒ KKAA # ⑥¥ ☒ 0$01 #R AAPA#☒ I

gives impression that everyone is

using the product therefore
-

you should use it .

ex -
Jane saw her friends uses bluetooth earphones and she feels
like she should also get one for herself

☒ :
81*01133 ☒ ☒ ☆ E- All
-
set up association between a product and people who are sexy ,

athletic , popular , or living a desirable lifestyle

ex .
An actor wore gold necklace and bracelet in the advertisement
for a milk company .

55 " EAAKKAA EH ⑥ ¥ ☒☒☒E- A- 4-1-10 MM #☆☆ KOBRAAME ☒VEITH OPRAH

-
when advertiser use a celebrity ,
such as an athlete or movie star ,

to promote a product that is outside the

celebrity 's field of expertise -

ex .
A female idol was in an advertisement for burger .
Chp 4: Fundamentals of critical thinking

Argument
-
claim defended with reasons

passage is
argument when:
-group of two or more statement
-

-
one of statements (conclusion) is claimed

or intented to be supported by other

premise

3 important things that follow from this definition

1.) Arguments consist entirely of statements

-
sentence that make sense T/F.

2).No single statement cat least two long, complex, or controversial

3.) unless is claimed intended that one statement follows from one or

more other statement in the

passage. When arguer offer evidence

or reasons why another statement should be true.

Understanding concept of an
argument

IS distinguish meaning of the term argument as quarrel or dispute

from meaning from CT
its

2)
recognise argument is composed of
-

premise -> intended to provide evidence for conclusion

-
conclusion -> statement in
argument, supported by premise
understanding premises & conclusion
⑧

ppremise indicator DomcelSSIOm indicator

-
since -
Therefore
that Hence
seeing
-
-

because -consequently
As a result
considering that
-
-

-That
as is
why
-

NOT argument

1) Report-statement to
convey info about a sub

2.) unsupported statements of belief or opinion

-
own opinion
without evidence/ reasons to back up

3) illustrations (novels/short examples that support claim, not

story) -

to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true

4) Conditional statements -
contains one statement with alternatives

5)explanations -
provide account of why something has occurred

6)
descriptions -
no reason or evaluate outcome

i) reduced versions
summaries -

longer messages
of or text.
Deductive &
·conclusion is claimed or intended to follow necessarily from the
premises
logically true

realistically true
·

general -> specific

Inductive
&
-
conclusion is claimed or intended to follow probably from the
premises
logically true
·

realistically may/may not be true

·

specific -> general

4test used to determine whether deductive /

argument is

inductive

1) 5) THE DINDICATER WORRID FEESST

-
whether there are indicator word that provides clues whether

A isdeductive/inductive argument
deductive necessarily, logically, it
-
must be the case that,
and this proves that
inductive -

probably, likely, it is plausible to suppose that, it

is reasonable to think that, and it's a good bet that

eg. Jane is a student, most science

science student need to
have a lapcoat. So Jane probably have a lapcoat
22)) THE STRICH NECESSSIIFY FEESSF
~
whether the conclusion follows from the premises with strict

* logical necessity-
if yes-deductive
althought premise is
wrong but conclusion follow logically
from premise so if premise is true conclusion is true as well.

e.g. no nurse are doctors, no doctors are males. So no nurse

are males

3 F COMMON IPUTFIERRA FIESSF

whether argument exhibit a pattern of reasoning that

* -
characteristically D/I
argument exhibits a pattern of reasoning that is D/I then
the argument is probably DII
eg. Either Jane pass the test or she didn't
only those who take degree pass
Jane is not taking degree
so Jane didn'tpass the test
N

#D) FHE PPRRIADIDUE OF CHARIFN TESSI

shouldalways interpret an unclear argument as generously
s
-

as possible.

eg. Jane told see her grandmother goes to the gym every weekend.
Joe said Jane's grandmother must be
joking since she is

over 85
years old.
5 pattern for deductive

1) B IMPROOTIMEFILEC SSMEGOGGISSM
-

three line argument (two premise, one conclusion (

-
contains at least one conditionalie. If then premise
eg. If I want scholarship, I'd better study hard.
I do want so

Therefore, I'd better study hard.

25 DATEGORIC SSMULOGGISSUM
-
three line argument.
-
each statement begins with, all, some or no.

(II),
m

eg. All roses are flowers. eg all sat are mammals

all mammals are warm blooded animals invalid

All flowers are
pretty So, all cats are warm blooded was

I
So, all roses are
pretty eg some lecturers are sick
all lectures SEG1 staffs
are
/I'x
s

invalid
so, some segi staffs are sick.

SEG

) ARGUME BBM
3 EECI MI#I@
to possibility
-
seek
logically rule out various possibilities until one

remains

eg. Either Jane went to the coffee shop or library.

ButJane didn't went to the library
Therefore Jane went to the coffee shop

#5) ARCG MME BBASSEEDD OO # UAFHEMATICSS

-
math is a model of logical, step by step reasoning
-
conclusion claimed to depend largely on maths calculation or

measurement
eg. Every even number are divisible
by two
36 is an even number

therefore 36 divisible
is by two
5) ARGGUME# FROM DDEFN11 #I @N
-
conclusion is presented as
being true by definition, simply by
definition some
keywords used in argument
sister. Thefore Jane girl.
eg. Jane is a
a is

6 patterns of inductive

1) S IIID MCCHINE GENERADIZA#I BI

-
claim to be probably true based on info about some members of
a
particular class.

eg. Jane is a woman.

Jane is bad at driving

Therefore, all women at drivingin

bad
D IPRRIEDICCHINE ARGGUME A#
2

may or will happen in the future that is defended with reasons.

we have test the middle of the

e.g. always in sea.

notably
Therefore, have test in the middle of the sem.

3) ARGGUMEN# FROM HEM#HO RI#M

assert a claim then support claim by citing some presumed authority
-

who has said that claim is true-

eg. Newton was an alchemist.

should take
so we
alchemy seriously.
by
#5 CCHANSS D ARCGMMEI
-
asserts denies that something is cause of something else

eg. I can't
log on, the internet must be down.

5) SIFISFIGAC ARCAMEF
Rests statistical evidence of group has
on
percentage some
- -

some particular characteristics

eg. 80% of a high school take science stream

Jane is a student of a high school.

so, Juve
oably take science stream.

66.5 HRGGMMENT FROM AND ALO CN

-comparison of two or more
things that are claimed to be alike
in some relevantaspect.
is
eg. The novel supposed to have a similar plot that I read, so
it is
onlyboring too.
 Chp5: Analyzing Argument
Analyzing argument
-break it down into various part to see
clearly what conclusion is defended

and on what grounds

Diagramming short arguments

-quick and easy way analyse relatively short argument
to

15 Recognize when premise provide independent support for a conclusion.

2) Recognize when premises provide linked support for conclusion

Linked premises
-two premises are linked when one omission of one of the premises would
cancel or reduce the amount of support provided by the other.

eg. cancel one conclusion doesn't make sense

No one in the coffee shop is a student. ⑰ 0 + @

Jane is a student & ↓
③
So, Jane is not at the coffee shop B

Steps: 1) identify each claim and note

any indicator words.

Independent premises
-
two premises are independent.
-
when neither premise would provide less support for conclusion

eg. Jane visit a

washing machine shop. O O ①
&
sane asked her cousin about the washing machine E B
Jane must be planning to buy a washing machine. B

steps: 16 number each statement and note each indicator

2) which claims is conclusion & premises?
3 suse arrows to represent the intended relationship between claims
How to diagram arguments
1) read through argument, circle premise/conclusion indicator
2) Number the statements consecutively as
they appear in the argument
3) Arrange the numbers with the premises placed above conclusion.
4) Use arrow to mean "is offered evidence for "to create a kind of
as

flowchart to show which premises are intended to support which conclusion.

5) Indicate independent premise by drawing arrow to the conclusion age

Indicate linked premise by placing a plus sign between premises and
N ②
an arrow from
drawing the underlined premises
⑤
65 Put the argument's main conclusion at the bottom of the diagram

summarizing longer arguments

-
don't identify
-

argument summary is to provide sypnosis of argument

-

accurately restates main points in own words

-standardization.

5 steps standardizing argument

in

1.) read through argument

identify main conclusion & any major premises & sub conclusions.
·

paraphrase as needed to clarify meaning

-
clear, concise, accurate a charitable.
1. Omit unecessary/irrelevant material.

3) Number the steps in argument

·

list in correct logical order.

4)fill in key missing premises a conclusions
5). add justifications for each conclusions
for each con/subcon, indicate parentheses from which previous lines
in the argument the son/subcon is claimed to directly follow
Paraphrasing
-
detailed restatement of a passage
-

using different words & phrases

four main qualities of good pp
: accurate -

reproduces meaning fairly without bias or distortion

clear-translate complex/confusing into easier to understand unimportant
concise -

capture the essence of argument and strips away irreleventdetail

charitable -

interpret passage as charitably as the evidence reasonably

permits

Finding missing premises & conclusions

-
sometimes premise is left unstated

-enthymene
two basic rules in filling in
missing steps
faithfully interpret the intentions
·

arguer's
-be as accurate as possible in interpreting arguer intent
-

part of argument only if it was understood to be part of the

argument by the arguer himself.
-
fill in missing step in argument in a way that how the arguer

himself would recognize as his own thought

be charitable
~
if don't know how arguer thinks the interpret the argument as

generously as possible
-
search way to complete argument that (1) isplausible way of
interpreting the arguer uncertain intent. (2) makes argument as

good an argument as it can be.

Chp8 -Categorical logic

Categorical statements
-
makes claim about the relationships between two or more categories /

classes of things.

standard -

form Categorical statements

All S are P No S are P

S P S B

somes are p somes are not p

S P S B

X X

-
All, no, some are quantifiers, used to express a quantity or no

-all have subject term (serves as grammatical subject)

&
represented as s

-all have predicate term (serves as subject complement)

↳ represented as P

all have copula verbs, are are not (link sub&pre)

or
linking
-
Translation of standard -
form categorical statements
Tip 1: Rephrase all nonstandard subject a predicate terms that
so
they
refer to clases
Tip 2: Rephrase all non standard verbs so that statement includes the

linking very are or are not

Tip 3: fill in any unexpressed quantifiers

Tip 4: translate singular statements as all/no

Tip 5: translate stylistic variants into appropriate categorical form.

Categorical syllogisms
~
three line deductive argument, all three are
categorical statements -

-
simple way to test validity of categorical syllogisms is to use
Venn diagrams in which
overlapping circles represent relationships
among classes.

validity of categorical syllogism

Six steps
1) translate all statements in the argument into standard from categorical
statements if necesary
It draw a label three overlapping circles, one for each term in argument
with two circles for the conclusion at the bottom
3) Use
shading to represent all/no. all save shades without overlap

3 Nos drep shade overlaps of ad P.

use X to represent some. Sonos are p cross overlap Sd p.
Some save not p. Crosss without overlap $

4) Do all/no first. Then do some

5) When place X, if one part is shaded, place Xin unshaded part.

if neither is shaded place X on the line the two part

separating
6)look at complete diagram to see if info is presented in con, if
yes valid. If no, invalid
 D
3.) 4) CS

C
'III m

~
YI/IIIam
valid invalid

H O valid

X w
"II/II
HL
f X
s

invalid
invalid
 "IIllp
T

C *
x
m
I
I B C

invalid valid

#111(I, II
+, 1/
111I
2 m
S Fh

invalid invalid

*
↑
D U

invalid
 migOc
wart

ONE m"m
·