BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1. Introduction to Business Research

1.1 The Research
1.2 Business Research
1.3 Basic Assumptions of Business Research
1.4 Types of Research
1.5 Research Approaches
1.6 Sources of Data
1.7 Basic Research Methodology
1.8 Research Plan/Proposal for Business Research
1.9 Criteria of Good Research
1.10 Features of Good Business Research

2. Identifying the Research Problem

2.1 Understanding and Defining the Research Problem
2.2 Relevance of Research
2.3 Development of Research Questions/Hypotheses and the Objectives of
Research
2.4 Scope of the Research

3. Preparing for Research Study

3.1 Literature Survey
3.2 Identifying the Research Variables and their Relationships
3.3 Development of Conceptual Model of Research Problem
Situation
3.4 Identifying the Sources of Data
3.5 Sampling Techniques
3.6 Scaling Techniques for Measurement of Qualitative Data

4. Data Collection Methods

4.1 Types of Data in Social Research
4.2 Observation Method
4.3 Case Study method
4.4 Interview Method
4.5 Questionnaire Method
4.6 Qualitative Methods

5. Development of Research Design / Plan

5.1 Research Design
5.2 Purpose of a Research Design
5.3 A Good Research Design
5.4 Basic Concepts Used in Research Design
5.5 Types of Research Design
5.5.1 Research Design for Exploratory Research
5.5.2 Research Design for Descriptive & Diagnostic Research
5.5.3 Research Design for Research Based on Hypothesis Testing

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 5.6 Formulation of Research Plan
5.7 Ethical Issues in Conduct of Research

6. Processing and Analysis of Data

6.1 Data Processing
6.1.1 Editing
6.1.2 Coding
6.1.3 Classification
6.1.4 Tabulation
6.2 Types of Analysis
6.3 Data Analysis and Use of Statistics
6.4 Statistical Software Packages

7 Interpretation &Presentation of Results

7.1 Findings of the Research Study
7.1.1 Descriptive Statistics
7.1.2 Variable Relationships
7.1.3 Hypothesis Testing & Answers to Research Questions
7.2 Reporting & Presentation
7.3 Steps Involved in Report Writing
7.4 Report Layout
7.5 Presentation of Report
7.6 Ethical Issues in Research Reporting

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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

1.1 The Research

1.2 Business Research
1.3 Basic Assumptions of Business Research
1.4 Types of Research
1.5 Research Approaches
1.6 Sources of Data
1.7 Basic Research Methodology
1.8 Research Plan / Proposal for Business Research
1.9 Criteria of Good Research
1.10 Features of Business Research

Business research aims at collecting/generating systematized knowledge through

observation, experimentation, and other systematic method or procedure to
determine the nature and causes of the phenomena being studied. Thus, it is a body
of knowledge, and also a system of procedures and methods.

1.1 The Research

Researchrefersto an investigation or enquiry about any phenomena.It is

systematic, controlled and empirical in nature. It may relate to investigation about
presumed relationships among natural phenomena. In other words, research
involves a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.

A phenomenonmay have numbers of possible explanations, which are being

investigated. If the „research‟ is systematic in nature, then out of possible
explanations, all will be ruled out on the basis of systematic research, except for the
„one‟ which is validated by the research. The empirical nature of investigation
means that it is subjected to system of empirical enquiry and testing, and can be
checked against objective reality.

According to Clifford Woody, “research comprises of defining and redefining

problems, formulating possible solutions, collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making inferences, reaching conclusions; and carefully testing the conclusions
through empirical methods”.

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1.2 Business Research

Business research investigatesbusiness related phenomena in a systematically and

empirical manner. Such research includesstudying business related strategies,
policies, action plans, and procedures of business processes of business
organizations and overall business environment.Business research attempts to
establish causal relation between various strategies, business plans, market
responses, competitors‟ reactions, consumer behaviour, market share, and
profitability.

In an organisational set-up,business research facilitates study of business strategies,

business plans/practices, competitors‟ reactions &behaviour, and value-creation for
the customers in different situations.The cause of a problem can be identified;
andoptimal solution can also be arrived using business research.

ExamplesofBusinessResearch Subject/Areas: A business organization may face

certain issues or problems for which ready answers are not available. In such a
situation, conducting appropriate research inquiry may lead to appropriate answers
for generating the desired information. Some examples of situations/problems whose
answer or solution can be attempted through business research are mentioned
below:
 Example 1: A business company is facing decline in sales turnover, and
wants to find possible answers of falling sales, and ways to enhance its
sales in future in the prevalent business. The company may attempt to find
appropriate answer/solution through business research.
 Example 2: A business organization desires to introduce new product in a
new market. It is interested to formulate appropriate business strategies
and business plans for this purpose. The company may like to launch
business research for finding out customers‟ requirements & preferences,
competitors‟ product strategies, and may evolve its strategy for gaining
competitive advantage. For generating answers to these related questions,
the company may conduct a business research study in the selected
target market among the partner organizations of its supply chain, the

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 market-men and other persons associated with manufacture, distribution.
and sale of its product.

1.3 Basic Assumptions of Business Research

Certain scientific methods are adopted in business research, on the basis of certain
basic assumptions. These assumptions include:
(a) Business problems have causal relationships with certain parameters and
phenomena prevalent in the planning and execution of business operations.
(b) Various business activities do not occur in a haphazard manner. There is
some system and trend behind these.
(c) It is possible for a human, being part of business-society interaction system,
to study the business related systems in a detached manner.
(d) In a large business system comprising of producers-marketers-distributors-
retailers-customers‟ system, study may be made on a representative sample
and results may be applied to the whole system.

1.4 Types of Research

The field of business research can be classified into number of ways as described
below:

Qualitative and Quantitative Research:Qualitativeresearch is concerned with

investigation of qualitative aspects of a business or social phenomena. For example,
study on effectiveness of a particular business strategy in numbers pf organisation is
basically a qualitative research. Quantitativeresearch involves measurement of
attributes of a phenomenon in quantitative manner.

Conceptual and Empirical Research:Conceptualresearch relates to abstract idea

or theory. It is used to develop new concepts or to reinterpret the existing ideas and
theories. Empiricalresearch is the data based research with conclusions which can
be verifies by observation or experiments.

1.5 Research Approaches

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There are two basic approaches for social science research: qualitativeapproach
and quantitativeapproach. Both differ in the nature of problem and problems
parameters or research variables, and the type of data associated with the
phenomena being investigated.

Qualitative approach is concerned with subjective assessment of research

parameters / variables like customer satisfaction, buying behaviour, quality
attributes/preferences, and customer relationship management. Here, the research
relates to the parameters which are qualitative in nature, and have to be measured in
qualitative terms. Such parameters cannot be measured in terms of quantitative
yardsticks. However, scaling methods can be adopted to get a quantitative feeling
about the parameters, and then assigning quantitative number corresponding to level
of qualitative measurement (like very low, low, neither low nor high, high and very
high, which may be assigned numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 for further analysis).

Quantitative approach basically involves generation of data in quantitative form

which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. This research is strong in
empirical investigation and analysis.

Qualitative approach can have two further sub-groupings: inferential approach and
experimental approach where data generated is in quantitative form. In inferential
approach, survey research is done on a sample population and then it is inferred that
the population has same characteristics as the sample. Experimental research
involves study on an experimental group selected from the population. Here greater
control is possible over the research environment

1.6 Sources of Data

Data for business research can be obtained from two types of sources: documentary
sources and field sources. Documentary sources include material already collected
which may be published or unpublished. Such sources are called
secondarysources, as information has been complied already and is being
conveyed under second step.Fieldsources may include living persons, scholars,

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research workers, leaders of social groups who have first-hand information regarding
the phenomena being researched. Such information is to be compiled / gathered by
the researcher himself/herself, and therefore such sources are called
primarysources.

Various experts and researchers have described their views and findings on different
issues and phenomena in terms of books, research articles and other
documents. Such secondary sources are a rich source of information for any new
researchers. Many governmental and private organisations carry out studies and
surveys as part of their regular activities. Some of these findings are published in for
of reportsandmonographsforpublicinformation. However, a large part of their
study reports are not published due to lack of funds or other reasons, but may be
made available to new researchers on special requests.The reliability and accuracy
of secondary data cannot be assumed without verifying the reliability of the source.

Primary sources have to identified by the researcher through own efforts.

Researcher has to personally go the primary source for collection and
compilation of information required for the research. Such information may be
collected through direct observation of the persons involved in the phenomena,
speaking to the informants / witnesses, interviewing persons having direct
information, or through social surveys among concerned population or a
representative sample of the population for the research.

1.7 Basic Research Methodology

Research method refers to the method or technique used by the researcher in

conduct of research for studying the research problem. The research method
includes method of data collection, and also the method of data analysis &
interpretation.

Research methodology refers to the systematic way used to solve the research
problem. The methodology describes the steps adopted for solving the
problem, and also the logic behind use of such steps. The methodology
includes:

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  the research methods used;
 the details of allied steps used data capturing,
 interaction of data source(s),
 steps for data interpretation and analysis,
 finding answers to the research questions, and
 interpretation of the research findings etc.

1.8 Research Plan / Proposal for Business Research

A research plan or a research proposal covers, from start to finish, various steps
used for carrying out the objectives and the sequence in which these are
undertaken. The activities carried out under each step are also described in the
sequential manner.

Steps involved, generally, inconductofbusinessresearch are summarised below:

(a) Formulating and defining the research problem: It is generally said that
“well-began is half done”. Therefore, researcher must single out the issue
which is to be studied under the particular research. The scope of the
research must be clear i.e. „what exactly is covered under proposed research‟
and „what is not included under this research‟ must be clearly understood and
clarified accordingly.
(b) Understanding the problemissue (through literature survey):Before starting
the research work, it is advisable to fully understand the subject matter of the
problem and the background issues. Detailed study of past and current
knowledge is very helpful in this regard. Therefore, the researcher carries out
detailed study / survey of the literature including books, published reports &
research articles, and survey reports etc.
(c) Development of research questions and working hypotheses for
testing:Detailed literature survey brings sufficient clarity in understanding of
the underlying issues involved in the research problem. At this stage, the
researcher should state clearly what issues are proposed to be researched.
For the purpose of clarity, the researcher shouldmention the unknown issues
for which the answer will be found through the research. These can be

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 formulated in terms of the research related „questions‟ whose answer will be
available after the proposed research. This can also be stated in terms of
working hypotheses which can be tested on the basis of the results of the
research.
(d) Development of research design:Research design refers to development
of conceptual structure under which the research will be carried out. It
also describes the research method to be adopted for the research. Summary
of methods to be used for data collection and data analysis is also presented.
Sampling method adopted in the research for data collection is also
presented.
(e) Data collection method: Primary data is generally collected through
experimentation, observation, and surveys. Under each of these methods,
there can be several specific methods in the micro sense. Therefore, the
researcher must describe the research methods, and its details, adopted for
collection of data for the research.
(f) Data analysis & interpretation methods and techniques: There can be
many methods and techniques for analysing the data. Therefore, the
researcher should describe the specific techniques used for data analysis and
interpretation of results. Methods of hypotheses testing should also be
presented. Similarly, the method and procedure used to find answers to the
research questions should also be described under this section.
(g) Estimates of resources (time, cost, and manpower) involved:As the
research plan /proposal document may be used for seeking formal approval
for carrying out the proposed business or social research, it must present the
resources required for physical conduct of the research work. It must present
realistic estimated of resources namely money, time, personnel, building
space, transportation/logistics facilities required etc.

1.9 Criteria of Good Research

 The background issues and current-knowledge on the subject should be
studied in detail before starting the research work.
 The objectives and the scope should be clearly defined and recorded before
start of the research work.

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  The research methods and procedures should be finalised and recorded at
the beginning.
 Detailed research design should be prepared and strictly followed.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently elaborate, and its validity and
reliability should be checked out properly.
 Testing of hypotheses and finding answers to research questions should be
done carefully and strictly in accordance with established practice adopted by
various researchers in the past.
 Conclusions should be confined to the research evidences brought out
through interpretation of the findings and the results of the research.

1.10 Features of Good Business Research

Business research, being a scientific study follows the basic principles of scientific
research. It has certain characteristics which are common to scientific research. It
involves data measurement, which has to have accuracy, reliability and repeatability
of measurement. This is necessary as data collection and data measurement are the
foundation pillars of any good useful research. There are number of other
characteristics necessary in any business research to make it a scientific research,
based on which results obtained from a small sample of population may be
generalised to be true for the population on the whole. Some of such characteristics
of a good business research are presented and discussed below.

(a) Objectivity of Research

A researcher‟s personal values, belief, work habits and attitude towards work
have a direct influence of his research work, Therefore, the researcher has to
plan his actions and search appropriate research methodologies to ensure that
the observations and the results are not influenced by his beliefs, but are purely
the outcome of research outputs from the selected business/social group.

If the study is influenced by personal views and beliefs of the researcher, then the
results reflect his/her views and not the true views of the persons being

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researched. This is called influenced caused by subjectivity of the researcher.
This lowers the correctness value of the research. The research study is
called subjectivewhen it is influenced by researcher‟s personal views and beliefs;
and is not purely based on the true observation of the facts

As part of business research, we study abstract parameters like customer

satisfaction, loyalty, customers‟ requirements, etc. In such a situation, the
researcher unknowingly compares the observed phenomena with his own
personal views. This brings in his subjectivity in his observations. The researcher
has to very much impersonal in his approach and also during the research
observations.

Objectivity is an essential feature of any scientific research study and

distinguishes it from a non- scientific study. The study is said to be objective by
nature when (i) the study is not influenced by personal values and beliefs of the
researcher, but (ii) is based purely on the observation and analysis of the
phenomena occurring in the research study.

(b) Reliability of Measurement

Reliability refers to the degree of accuracy of instrument being used for

measurement. The accuracy needs to be only as high as required in the context
of the research study. It also refers to repeatability of measurement. If a test
measurement is reliable, then it will give the same measurement result if
the test is repeated number of time on the same set of individuals under same
situation and condition. Other words used for reliability, in business research
context, are dependability, consistency and accuracy.

Errors in measurement in an instrument reduce its accuracy or reliability.

Therefore, reliability can also be viewed as degree to which measurement errors
have been eliminated in a measuring instrument. In business research,
measurement instruments have to be designed in terms of questionnaire,
interview schedule etc. It is therefore essential that such measurement

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instruments are so designed that these do not add errors due to their inbuilt
features, and eliminate responder‟s bias and errors entering the measurement.

(c) Validity of Data and Measurement

An instrument is said to be valid if it is accurately measuring the object or

phenomena it is required to measure. Insufficient validity means a research
error when the research design is not able to accomplish what it is set out to do.
High degree of validity reflects the accurate approximation to the real value.

In business research, if an instrument is designed to measure abstract attribute,

say „customer satisfaction‟, is difficult to say that it is measuring only the
„customer satisfaction‟ and that no other parameter has entered the
measurement. Thus, the instrument and its measurement cannot be said to be
hundred percent valid. It is difficult to measure the abstract attributes in a valid
manner. Some degree of invalidity may creep in such measurement. Therefore,
validity has to be built into the measuring instrument as part of its design.

An ‘instrument’ is said to be valid if can measure the attribute or

phenomena accurately and also distinctly. In business research, the validity
can be affected in number of ways, and therefore different types of validity
concepts have been identified on the basis of the nature of possible loss in
validity. The different types of validity concepts are described below:

 Predictive Validity: The predictive validity reflects the accuracy by which the
current measurement of a variable can be used to predict its value at a later
stage. For example, if a test is used to measure achievement of athletes in a
tournament, it can also be used to predict their achievement at a later stage. If
we are able to make accurate predictions or if our predictions come true, we
may say that the measuring instrument is valid.

 Content Validity: It refers to the extent to which the measuring instrument

provides adequate coverage to the topic under study. In business, many

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 attributes like „customer satisfaction‟ and „competitive advantage‟ are
measured through sum of other sub-attributes which are called „contents‟ of
the main attribute to be measured. Content validity is the representativeness
of the content, as described above. Here validity represents the degree to
which the selected content represents the total content or universe of the
attribute being measured. Content validity is guided by the question: Is the
content of the measure representative of the content or the universe of
content of the property/attribute being measured?

 Construct Validity: The validity of the test or measurement depends upon

the extent to which differences in scores on it reflect the true difference
among the different units of population being studied. A measuring instrument
measures a property in terms of numbers of sub-constituents called
constructs. The measurement is valid only to the degree to which each
construct truly measures what they are intended to measure.

 Verifiability: Scientific research has important property of verifiability.

Verification is carried out through study being repeated under similar
conditions. If the results are found to be the same, then verifiability is said to
have been established.

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UNIT 2: IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

2.1 Understanding and Defining the Research Problem

2.2 Relevance of Research
2.3 Development of Research Questions/Hypotheses and the Objectives of
Research
2.4 Scope of the Research

In an organisational situation, a problem is generally observed through the

symptoms, as in case of an illness of humans or other living beings. The
symptoms are to be observed carefully and various issues of some similarities
are clubbed together for further study. As a medical doctor examines the patient,
a researcher also studies and examines the conditions prevalent in the organisation.
The symptoms point put towards possibility that the organisation may be facing a
particular problem, for which some solutions can be suggested on the basis of
experience and past knowledge.

2.1 Understanding and Defining the Research Problem

First task for solving a problem is to study all symptoms arising from various
individuals and or groups of persons. Study of the symptoms generally raises a
pointer in direction of some definite aspects which are usually associated with
particular problems. Thus, examination of symptoms leads to certain set of
problem issues. The probability of occurrence of various problem issues are
assessed and suggestions are evolved on existence of certain problems.

Once the occurrence of a problem is identified, it is necessary that it is stated

in concise manner, in minimum number of words, in a concrete language so
that it can be understood only in one way, the desired way. The problem has to
be clearly stated in simple words. The problem to be examined should be defined
unambiguously as that will help in compilation of right data from right sources.

Defining a research problem is a prerequisite for launching a research study, as it

provides the scope of the study and the objectives of the study. A proper and clear

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definition helps to focus attention on the correct aspects of the problem. For defining
the problem, it is necessary that the boundaries of the problem are stated clearly on
the basis of detailed study of symptoms. This will help a researcher to study the
problem with a predetermined set of objectives.

The research problem should be defined in a systematic manner giving due weight
age to all points relating to different types of symptoms.

The methodology followed for initial phrasing the problem-definition, finding

possibilities for updating and revising it, and finally rephrasing the problem-definition
can be understood in terms of following steps:
(a) In the beginning, a broad study of the problem is carried out and problem
issues are identified. Some possible causes of problem issuesare generated.
Based on this, a broad picture regarding problem issues and possible causes
emerges. Based on this, a broad definition of the problem can be formulated.
(b) In the next stage, the problem definition is refined through personal
discussions with persons personally conversant with the problem issues. The
objective is to check the scope of the problem, and how it is stated in the text
of problem-definition.
(c) In the third stage, the researcher carries out extensive literature survey and
himself becomes conversant with description of the problem issues by other
experts in the published literature. Based on personal knowledge about
literature knowledge, the researcher is able to relate the given problem with
some phenomena and allied theories. He is now in a better position to further
refine the definition.
(d) At this stage, personal discussion with subject experts brings further clarity,
which is used to check and cross check the words and phrases used in the
text of the definition.
(e) Finally, the researcher must make personal sittings to think over the whole
scenario and related phenomena. He now has the clear understanding to
check-out each word used in the problem-definition, and to challenge their
place in the definition. He is now in a position to re-phrase the definition with
desired clarity using minimum words to describe the phenomena, its „causes‟
and the „effects‟ on the society and or the organisation.

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2.2 Relevance of Research
The proposed research study should be relevant to the, business organisations,
academicians, society, social groups, and researchers of current time and of the
near future as well. The researcher should study and analyse the current and
emerging future environment, and establish the relevance and usefulness of the
proposed research. Such potential relevance and usefulness should be established
and recorded in the beginning of the research. It may be reviewed and updated, if
required, on completion of the research study.

2.3 Development of Research Questions/Hypotheses and the Objective of

Research
On completion of extensive literature survey and finalising the definition of the
research problem, the stage is set to identify and record the main objectives and also
the sub-objectives of the proposed research study. The objectives can be phrased
as the search of the„likely knowledge and answers to problem issues’as faced by the
researcher in the beginning of the research.

The objective can also be stated in terms of specific questions whose answers have
to be found through the proposed research. Such “questions” whose answers are to
be found on the basis of proposed research are called as the “research questions”.

A hypothesis is a proposition which the researcher wants to verify. Often there may
be several competing hypotheses, either specified or implied. One objective of
research is to select among the possible hypotheses and to test them empirically
with the help of statistical tools in order to ascertain whether they are true or false.

Hypothesis for mulation deals with assumptions made by the researchers. There
are two kind of hypotheses: Null and Alternative hypothesis. Null hypothesis is an
assumption that there is no difference between the sample and population
phenomena. And alternative hypothesis states that the difference between the
sample and population phenomena is statistically significant.

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The symbol used for null hypothesis is Ho and for alternative hypothesis is denoted

by Ha. The hypotheses are always formulated for population parameters or

characteristics rather than sample parameters. Null hypothesis always states that
there is “no significant difference.” it means that there is no significant difference
between the population mean and the sample mean. Whereas, alternative
hypothesis states that the difference is real.

2.4 Scope of the Study/Research

The formal definition of the research problem clearly brings out the issues proposed
to be studied and analysed through the proposed research. This brings out the
scope of the proposed research.

The issues not covered, directly or indirectly, in the definition of the research problem
are not likely to be studied under the proposed research, and therefore are outside
the scope of the proposed research.

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UNIT 3 PREPARING FOR RESEACH STUDY

3.1 Literature Survey

3.2 identifying the Research Variables and their Relationship
3.3 Development of Conceptual Model of Research
Problem Situation
3.4 Identifying the Sources of Data
3.5 Sampling Techniques
3.6 Scaling Techniques for Measurement of Qualitative Data

3.1 Literature Survey

A researcher may have some personal knowledge regarding the research problem
and may also collect some information from the persons connected with the problem.
Before starting he research, it is essential for the researcher to develop strong
theoretical knowledge-base regarding the background and all aspects of the
problem situation.Authentic published literature available in reputed books and
research journals provide rich and reliable source of background information on the
subject matter.

Both publishedandunpublishedreports may be useful in providing useful

information relating to the problem and various causes of such and similar problems.
These may also suggest many possible solutions to the problem. However,checking
on the reliability and authenticity of the information is essential before the same is
used as information-base for the research.

Researchjournals, particularly the refereed journals, are good source of

authentic information vetted by the experts on the subject matter. Names of
research journals in the area of interest may be searched on the internet. Such
reports may be safely used as information source for the proposed research. Due
care should be taken to ensure all the reports/articles are not very old, but 25 years
old material may still provide good background knowledge and relevant facts. Care
may be taken that more than half on the information sources should be less than 10
years old.

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Published reports / articles are not used as the data for the proposed research
to be carried out, but only serve as material useful for building ‘theory’ about
reasons of the problem and identifying the inter-relationship between various
problem issues.

When to stop the study of literature? The research evidences provided by each
source should be recorded theme wise, subject wise, and alphabet wise for quick
reference and cross checking. Different sources may support the same evidence, or
may bring out more material, or may even provide counter evidence. When
sufficiently large amount of literature has been surveyed, a stage is reached that with
more studies of journals or books/reports, very less amount of new research
evidence is available, and no new point emerges. This is the stage where the
researcher may decide about closing/completing the study of literature.

The literature survey facilitates building up of the theoretical framework useful

in explaining various problem symptoms. It explains their causes as well. Such a
framework also explains the impact of such problem-issues on the working of other
constituent parts of the business operations or the social group associate with
business activities, or the business organisation itself. Such framework has
predictive properties which can be verified from real life situations.

3.2 identifying the Research Variables and their Relationship

The figure below shows a problem issue in a specific environment, say society or
business organisation. When the problem is understood, discussed and analysed, a
clear picture emerges.

The problem has some root causes due to which the problem is generated and is
reported. The problem, if left unattended, leads to certain adverse impact on the
society or the organisation.

Here three „aspects‟ are seen in the environment, as mentioned below:

(a) The „causes’which result into the „problem‟;

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 (b) The „problem’ which results into „adverse impact‟, and
(c) It can also be stated that the „causes‟ ultimately lead to the „impact’ om
society or om business organization.

Environment
Impact of the
Causes of the The Problem Problem Issue
Problem Issue Issue on Society or
Organisation

Environment

Independent Variables Intermediate Variables Dependent Variables

Fig: Conceptual Representation of the Problem, showing Independent and Dependent Variables

The situation can be stated in a different manner also, as under:

(a) Changes/variation in „causes‟ results in changes in „problem Issue‟.
(b) Changes in „problem issue‟ result in changes/variations in the „impact‟; and
(c) Changes in „causes‟ ultimately result in changes/variation in „impact‟.

Inthe above example, parameters where change/variation is observed are called as

the ‘variables’ of the research study. Two types of variables are observed here:
First type is the one where a variation is first observed, second type is the one where
variation is observed as a result of change in the first type.

The variable where change/variation is observed in an independent manner, is called

as the independent variable. On the other side, the variable in which the
„change/variation observed‟ is the result of (or is dependent on) the „change/
variation‟in the other variable is called as the dependent variable. We can also state
that a change in the independent variable leads to (results into) a change in the
dependent variable. In the above figure, the „problem issue‟ is the intermediate
stage. The cause leads to change in the problem issue; and a change in problem

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issue results into a change in the impact of society/organisation. The variable
corresponding to the middle or intermediate stage is called as the intermediate
variable.

3.3 Development of Conceptual Model of Research Problem Situation

Like the figure given above in section 3.2, a pictorial representation of the
problem issue facilitates in clearer understanding of key issues related to the
problem. The background issues relate to the independent variables and their inter-
dependence can be represented on left side and problem issues can be represented
on the right side.

Such a conceptual model helps in understanding the variables involved in the study;
and also the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. This
helps in developing deeper insights into the research problem.

3.4 Identifying the Sources of Data

Another issue to be understood before launching the research study is to identify the
sources from where research data can be collected. All units providing data for the
study constitute the „universe ’for the study, and all persons providing data are said
to constitute the „population’ for the study.

In some cases, the universe is not fully known, though a broad understanding
may be there. Indirect methods have to be developed to access the population for
carrying out the research study. Some time, the persons providing the data are not
directly known to the researcher.

For example, a research study is to be carried out among the school students of the
country. Here the names of students are not known to the researcher. But, the
country can be seen to be divided into number of provinces and each province can
be seen to be composed of number of districts. Now the district becomes a
manageably smaller unit (as compared to the country). The district has known
number of schools. Thus, students can be identified through the school where they

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are studying. Here respondent unit is the student. But for purpose of convenience,
students can be identified through the name of the school where they are studying.
Therefore, school can be called as a basic „research unit‟ where research is carried
out, and student becomes the source of data for the research.

3.5 Sampling Techniques

In many research situations, data is to be collated through large number of persons
constituting universe or population for the study. In the above example, all students
of the country constitute the universe or the population for the research study.

Sampling Theory: Physically, it may not be always possible to collect data from
each member of the universe or population of very large size. Further, the research
has to be completed within a reasonable time and cost. Statistically, it is observed
that if the data collected from a smaller group called as the sample, which is
representative of the larger group i.e. universe, it will be representative of the
data collected from the whole universe. The smaller sample group is to be
carefully selected so that its properties are true representative of the properties of
the universe or population. In view of the above stated statistical property, research
data may be collected from the carefully selected smaller group called sample group,
and the results so obtained can be generalised to be true for the whole universe of
the population.

Sampling design refers to the plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Sampling design is decided before data collection is commenced. Elements of the
sample are decided in a manner that they yield the same information about the
universe. The more approximately the sample presents the true characteristics of the
population, the more representative and dependable it is.

Sampling has number of advantages: (i) it cuts the costs involved;(ii) it increases
the accuracy as in small sample the accuracy of data can be checked more easily;
and (iii) the administrative issues become simpler due to smaller size. However,
some care is also essential. Sampling must be carefully designed and followed
otherwise the sample may become a wild sample.

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Various sampling techniques can be divided in two broad groups namely
probabilistic sampling and non-probabilistic sampling.

Probabilistic Sampling Technique: In this technique, each element of the universe

has equal probability of being included into the sample. Thus, selection is done
through process of randomisation where each element has same probability of
selection. An essential quality of a probabilistic sample is that it makes possible
representative sampling plans.

There can be two type of probability sampling: simple random sampling method, and
stratified random sampling method.
(a) Under simple random sampling method, all elements of the universe are
arranged in a random manner, and a criteria of selection is decided, say every
tenth or hundredth item is selected for inclusion in the sample.
(b) In stratified sampling, the universe is defined in terms of different groups of
homogenous nature called stratum. Therefore, elements of the population are
placed under its proper stratum as per the criteria for stratification. Then,
random sample is selected from each stratum.

Cluster sampling is another method similar to stratified sampling. The difference is

that clusters are already found to be groups of heterogeneous nature. Here
elements are not selected from each stratum. The elements are obtained by taking
sample of groups. Out of several clusters, one or two clusters are selected by simple
random sampling method. Then further sampling is done among the selected
clusters by again using simple random sampling method.

3.6 Scaling Techniques for Measurement of Qualitative Data

Scales are necessary for measurement of parameters. Quantitative parameters can

be measure through appropriate quantitative scale, like scales for length, weight,
volume, temperature etc. However, there is difficulty in quantitative measurement
of ‘qualitative parameters’. Various types of measurement scales are described
below:

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 (a) Nominal Scale: This scale provides a system of assigning numbers like
players of a team are assigned unique numbers. Such numbers serve the
purpose on only identification of object. This scale provides a system of
identifying and tracking of persons, objects etc, but provides no quantitative
information.

(b) Ordinal Scale: This scale also has a system of assigning number. But with a
difference over nominal scale. It has rank ordering system. Two parameters
are assigned numbers in a manner that larger number signifies higher value
of the parameter being measured. Thus “less than” significance and “greater
than” significance is conveyed by the number assigned.

(c) Interval Scale: This scale has an additional feature over the ordinal scale.
The difference in the number(s) assigned to the two parameters denote
difference in values of two parameters. This scale can have an arbitrary zero,
but there is no concept of absolute zero.

(d) Ratio Scale: This scale has absolute zero for measurement. Another
important feature is that ratio of numbers assigned to two parameters
indicates the ratios of values assigned to these parameters. Ratio scale
represents the actual parameters‟ value like weight, length, volume etc.

Error in measurement of business or social parameters can be from number of

sources. Some common sources of measurement errors are as under:
 Error made by the respondent in assessing the parameter value;
 Person measuring the attribute or phenomena may distort and introduce
some error while recording the response. Error may enter the measurement
due to tabular presentation, coding of data, and grouping of values.
 Measuring instrument may not be measuring the parameter‟s true value with
accuracy due to certain inherent limitation.
 The situation may have certain complexity which distorts the neutrality of
respondent and or the person measuring the parameter.

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Some typical scales used in business research and in social science research for
measuring of qualitative parameters are the (i) Summated Scales, called “Likert-
Type Scale” and (ii) Differential Scale or Thurstone Scale.

Summated Scale or Likert Scale:

This scale is used for measuring qualitative variables. It makes an assumption that a
respondent is able to clearly discriminate between „low‟ and „high‟ scores/values for a
particular variable. The statements which meet such discrimination criteria are
included in the measuring instrument.

Summated or Likert Scale comprises of number of statements that expresses a

favourable or unfavourable attitude regarding the variable being measured. The
respondent is asked to respond to number of such statements and give his response
in terms of degree of his agreement or disagreement to the statement. For example,
a study is being carried out regarding management policies, and in particular
response is being sought regarding policy towards encouragement of risk-taking by
the employees.

In the above mentioned situation, the respondent is asked to give his views on the
statement: “the management encourages risk-taking by the employees as part of
discharge of their duties” The respondent is given number of options to choose from,
which may be as under:
i. I strongly agree;
ii. I agree;
iii. I neither agree nor disagree;
iv. I disagree; and
v. I strongly disagree.

Each statement on the Likert Scale is assigned a quantitative number; say least
score (I strongly disagree) is assigned a score of 1 (one) and highest possible score
(I strongly agree) is assigned a score of 5 (five). Number of respondents give their
response to the statement, then the average value of all scores is taken and is given

Page No. 25
as final score. Say, the sum of score for response given by 10 respondent comes out
to be 34. Then the average score is 3.4 divided by 10 i.e. 3.4.

A three-point scale can also be used, which will have response options as: (i) I
agree; (ii) I neither agree nor disagree, and (iii) I disagree. Similarly, a seven-point
scale can also be designed and used. In practical research, use of “Five-point Likert
Scale” is more common and provides reasonable level of accuracy / reliability.

Likert type scale is easy to design and also easy to use. Most of the researchers use
this scale in business research and also in social science research. There is a
limitation of the Likert Scale. The various intervals like between „agree‟ and
„strongly agree‟ may not be equal to spacing between „neither agree nor disagree‟
and „disagree‟. Thus, to this scale is an approximation the reality.

Differential Scale or Thurstone-type Scale

This scale is generally eleven-point scale, where value for each item is not assigned
randomly as in Likert Scale, but by a panel of judges. It follows a detailed procedure,
which is summarised as under:
a) Large number of statements are gathered expressing various points of view
about a phenomenon.
b) These statements are submitted to a panel of judges. They examine the
statements, identify which are relevant and which are not relevant. They
select 11 most relevant statements and arrange them in order of being
favourable.
c) Based on selection and sorting by the judge, each selected statement is
assigned a unique „median value‟ between 01 to 11.
d) Judges make a final selection of statements whose median scores are spread
equally from one extreme to another extreme. These statements constitute
the final scale to be administered to the respondents for the research study.

Like the Likert type scale, respondents are asked to identify the statement to which
they agree. Then median value of each statement is used as the score.

Page No. 26
 UNIT 4.DATA COLLETION METHODS

4.1 Types of Data in Business Research

4.2 Observation Method
4.3 Case Study Method
4.4 Interview Method
4.5 Questionnaire Method
4.6 Qualitative Methods

4.1 Types of Data in Business Research

Data collected for business research may generally be of two types: primary and
secondary data. Primary data are collected fresh by the researcher, whereas the
secondary data has already been collected by others. Methods of collecting these
two types of data differ because of the nature of these two types of data. Researcher
has to personally identify sources of primary data, make an access to them for
obtaining the data, and use appropriate methods for collecting the desired data.
Whereas for secondary data, researcher has to access the source where such data
collected earlier has been kept/stored. The researcher has to search and find out the
data relevant for his study.

Most research methods provide information about the phenomena in qualitative,

descriptive and unstructured form. In business research, very less information/data is
collected in quantitative form. However, in business research particularly in
marketing research considerable data is collected in quantitative form and has to be
analysed in quantitative manner. Commonly used research methods are:
observation method, case study method, interview method, and survey method using
questionnaire.

Research methods used in business and social sciences include experimental

method, case study method, observation method, questionnaire survey, interview,
and content analysis etc. However experimental research methods are not common
in business environment but only in social and academic environment.

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4.2 Observation Method

In this method, the researcher himself observes the business or social phenomena
himself either through participation as a member of the group, or by observing in a
detached manner without involving himself in the phenomena. This is one of the
traditional and simple methods, but suffers from the criticism of being subjective by
nature. Here the researcher should observe a particular phenomenon in a realistic
situation, by personally visiting the particular place at particular time.

To serve the purpose of a scientific research method, it must meet two conditions:
(a) it should serve a formulated scientific purpose, and (b) it should be applied as a
systematically planned and recorded method, and should be subjected to checks
and controls of reliability and validity. In this method, respondent is not giving
response as the information is being directly collected by the researcher who acts as
the observer. Therefore,respondent’s biases do not enter the research data.
However, it has certain limitations. This method provides very limited information and
is time consuming as well as very expensive.

The observations to be made should be planned in a systematic manner. Further the

accuracy of observation must be ensured by making structured observation.There
can be two ways in which the observations can be made: participant observation and
non-participant observation.

In the participant observation method, the researcher arranges to make himself a

member of the group. Therefore, he can, more or less, have same feelings and
experience as other natural members of the group. This enriches the quality and
reliability of information collected. Secondly the researcher can personally verify
the truth of statements recorded. However, the subjectivity on the part of researcher
as observer cannot be eliminated. The success of this method depends on the
observer being accepted as natural member of the group. Posing as natural member
and at the same time recoding the observation is not practical. Therefore, some
additional person has to help in recording of observation.

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In non-participant observation method, the researcher observes the situation and the
phenomena in a detached manner without involving himself as member of the group.
The information recording is carefully planned. The observer watches the
phenomena „from an outside position‟ and thus ensures that observations involve
lesser degree of personal bias and subjectivity. One limitation of this method is that
the members of the social group,under study, are aware that they are being watched
and their behaviour is being recorded. Being aware, they do not give their natural
behaviour, thus bring error in the observation.

4.3 Case Study Method

In this method, the researcher does not record the observations in real-time as and
when these are occurring, but subsequently by gathering information from sources
who may have been part of the event, or phenomena. As the name suggests, this
method relates to extensive study of a case or an event, or a process that has
occurred in the past. The case study is basically an „in-depth study‟ of a particular
„case‟ involving a unit or an organisation. As the name suggests, case study refers to
intensive examination and analysis of a single unit, or number of parts of one single
unit.

In other words, case study can be described to be in-depth qualitative information

gathering followed by a careful analysis of: (i) all observations regarding various
persons of the particular unit under study, (ii) their behaviour and inter-personal
relationships, and (iii) the resultant impact on the unit or the organisation.

Several methods are common for data collection under case study method of
business research. Most common method is holding extensive discussion and
interviews with the personnel of the „case-unit‟ to seek all information in a sequential
manner on time scale i.e. covering both the past information and the information
about the current status. All events, activities, behaviours, conflicts, and benefits
occurring to the „case-unit‟ are discussed first in unstructured manner and then
followed by planned and structured discussions and interviews.

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The „behaviour interview‟ starts with general questions and gradually focuses on the
areas of interest, narrowing the questions to obtain more and more specific
information. Here the data is collected in chronological order. The investigator has to
selectively collect pertinent information according to the problem under investigation.
The next important task is organise, summarize and interrelate the information
collected for finding explanation regarding past sequence of events. Final phase of
actions relates to identification and diagnosis of causal factors as a basis for
remedial or development of treatment strategy.

4.4 Interview Method

Interview method, as the name suggests, is based on verbal face-to-face interaction

between the respondent and the researcher. This method can be used through
personal interviews and also through telephone-based interviews.

In this method a list of persons, who have the first-hand information regarding the
research subject (event, attribute, behaviour, or phenomena) is prepared. Number of
questions are also prepared for seeking information from the selected respondents.
Further, the „situation‟ for research and the set of questions are explained to certain
selected persons, who may act as the „interviewers‟ for gathering the research data.

Personal interviews can be of two types: structured interview and non-structured

interview. The structuredinterview involves use of specially designed questions
ahead of holding interviews. Further, the method and procedure of recording the
interview is also standardised for entire interview process. The interviewer also
follows a standardised procedure of asking questions in a predetermined order. All
interviewers are trained to strictly follow the standardised procedure.

Unstructured interviews do not follow a strict standardised method of asking

questions or recording the responses. Generally, freedom of non-structured interview
is permitted only to highly knowledgeable and trained interviewers, who make
deviation from standardised method only when they attempt to get more in-depth
information. Unstructured interviews demand deeper subject knowledge and

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higher interviewing skills on part of the interviewers. However, use of structured
interview facilitate economy of operation and also save time.

Interview method has some merits over observation method and the case study
method. It facilitates collection or more information, and even more in-depth
information. A skilled interviewer can win support of the respondent and may be able
to overcome his initial resistance. The interviewer has greater flexibility as compared
to observation method and case study method. The language and personal style of
the interviewer can be changed to match with educational and social background of
the respondent, thus facilitating better information, both in terms of quantum and
quality of information.

However, it is an expansivemethod when large population s spread over large

geographical area.It can become very „time consuming‟ in such circumstances. Each
interviewer may not be able to make proper rapport with the respondent, and thus
may not be able to get true response.

The interviewers themselves may become source of biasanderrorsintheresponse

received.Therefore, they have to be carefully selected and trained. They must be
briefed at length to be sincere, impartial, and competent in the art of interviewing.
They should be trained to create atmosphere of trust and confidence during the
interview process. They should make the respondents feel at ease while replying to
the questions. The responses should be recorded accurately and completely. The
respondents may also ask certain questions to get clear picture regarding the need
and purpose of interview. The interviewer must be able to reply to such questions in
simple language so as to win the confidence of the respondents. The interviewers
must be friendly by nature, courteous to the respondents, and remain unbiased in
asking questions and recording the responses.

Telephone-based interviews are conducted in almost similar manner as personal

interviews except that the interviews are not conducted face-to-face but over the
communication medium of telephone. This method of interviewing can also be
structured as well as be unstructured. The major difference is that telephone
interview does not provide an atmosphere of trust and confidence but respondent

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can get a feeling of impersonal interview being forced on him or her. It has major
advantages of being cheaper, easy and quick method of collecting desired
information. Replies can be recorded without making the respondent aware about it.
However, limited time is given to respondent for answering the questions. There are
greater chances of bias on the part of respondent, who may not be giving compete
and true information.

4.5 Questionnaire Method

In this method, the researcher carries out detailed study of all issues relating to the
research problem and prepares a detailed questionnaire covering all aspects of the
problem to be investigated. The questionnaire is sent to the respondents by post with
a request to answer to various questions given in the questionnaire. Generally, a
„self-addressed stamped envelope‟ is also enclosed for ease of sending the
response without any cost to the respondent.In current time when internet facility has
become common in most countries, the questionnaire can also be sent by e-mail.

The questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite

order on a form or set of forms. The respondent is expected to read and understand
the questions on his/her own and reply on the space provided in the questionnaire
itself.

An important aspect for success of the questionnaire-based study is to ensure

that the respondent understand the questions in the same way as the
researcher. Further, the questions have to worded in almost the same manner and
language as understood by the respondent. For this purpose, a pilot study is carried
out before sending the questionnaire to the actual respondents. Here
thequestionnaire is pre-tested for chances of getting the correct unbiased
responses.Such a study is carried out among experts who first discuss the
questionnaire with the researcher. Thereafter, they analyse the text and style of
questionnaire to examine if the respondents will understand in the same way as
desired by the researcher.The weakness in the questionnaire are identified and
rectified, to improve the questionnaire. This exercise is repeated once or twice till

Page No. 32
reasonable confidence is achieved that respondents will be able to understand the
questions in similar meaning as understood by the researcher.

The advantages of this method is its low cost when the universe is large and
widely spread. Further,it is free from the biases of the interviewer. The
respondent replies in his own language reducing the inaccuracy in answering. But it
has a problem that rate of replies is very low. Further, it is useful only if the
respondents are educated and are likely to be cooperative for the research.

Questionnaire Design: The questionnaire has number of questions designed to

cover all aspects of the problem on which replies are desired from the respondents.
Its special features are described below.
a) The questions are worded in a simple language and in a style as may be
understood easily by the respondents. A common man‟s language is
preferred over the language of an expert. The questions can be close-ended
or open-ended. Further, it may be structured or non-structured. The same
questions are presented to all respondents, with same language, and in same
ordering. Structured questions are simple to administer and simple to
analyse. However, it does not facilitate getting answer in respondents‟ own
language and words.
b) The question sequence needs special attention.The questions that are
easiest to answer are kept in the beginning of the questionnaire. First few
questions are important as they influence the attitude of the respondents. The
sequence of the questions should develop the interest of the respondent.
Relatively difficult questions should be put towards the end of the
questionnaire.
c) Questions should be impartial in the sense that they do not give a biased
picture. One question should relate to only one aspect of the problem.
d) The questions may be of „multiple-choice questions‟ or the „open-ended
questions‟ where the respondent provides the answer of his own thinking.
e) A good questionnaire should be short and simple to answer.
f) Questions should proceed in logical manner moving from easy to difficult
questions.
g) Vague questions should be avoided.

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 h) There should be some control questions to check the reliability of answers
provided by respondent.

4.6 Qualitative Methods

The researchers using exploratory research design use qualitative methods of

research. The major objective of using qualitative methods is to gain deep insights in
to the research problems and opportunities. The size of respondents from whom the
data is collected while using qualitative methods is usually small. The questions used
in this research method are open ended and it requires the respondents to elaborate.

The qualitative methods offer economy in both cost and time, it provides rich
data and preliminary insights in to a phenomenon. However, the common
problem with the data collected by using these methods is that it lacks the ability to
get generalized, reliability and validity. Some of the common qualitative methods
employed by the researchers are described below.

In-depth interviews: It is an unstructured and direct method used by the researcher

to obtain deep insights to uncover the respondents‟ motivation, attitude, beliefs,
feelings etc. The ability of the interviewer to communicate and moderate is crucial to
the success of this type of interview. This method delves in to the deep
understanding of the area being researched than going for a precise measurement.
The duration of an in-depth interview can vary any time between half an hour to two
hours depending upon the skills of the interviewer and the depth of information
required to be collected. Unlike survey and observation methods, these interviews
help in capturing both attitudinal and behavioural information from the respondents.
The interviewer gets ample chance to probe the respondents and to obtain in-depth
data. The interviewers often frame their questions based on the respondents‟
answers to get a detailed view.

The common benefits of in-depth Interviews are:

 Researcher can explore the attitudes and emotions of the respondents
in detail

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  The researcher can determine respondents‟ motivations and resistance
towards a particular product, process or event
 Useful in case of complicated and comparatively new research
subjects about which adequate information is not available
 Ability of the interviewer helps him to develop mutual trust with the
respondents and this helps in collecting most personal information also

The biggest limitation of in-depth interviews is the availability of skilled interviewers.

Focus Groups: Another common method of qualitative research is focus groups.

The focus group refers to a group of 8-12 individuals who are identified by the
researcher to interact informally and spontaneously on a particular topic relevant to
the research area. This method allows the researcher to get a wide array of
information pertaining to a particular topic from the perspective of different
individuals. The duration of a focus group interview can be anything between one to
three hours. The focus groups are conducted in a comfortable environment where
the participants can feel free and relaxed to share their opinions, views and facts.
Apart from the participants, another important person is the moderator who guides
the discussion towards the research topic. It is advisable to construct focus groups
by having similar participants so that positive and meaningful discussions can take
place.

The reason behind selecting participants from the same kind of age, income, and
gender and occupation etc. background is that, it helps them to get comfortable with
each other. It has been observed that participants from similar background feel more
comfortable in expressing their opinions. However, if a researcher is aiming for a
wider perspective, a diverse group of participants with different demographic
characteristics can also be selected. This is an extremely important issue as it is
hard to control group dynamics when more than 12 people are involved in a
discussion.

Moderator as discussed above is the leader who guides this group of participants.
Moderator initiates the discussion by introducing the discussion topic and

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encourages every participant to discuss and debate. The role of the moderator is not
to intervene or influence the opinion of participants, he is supposed to have some
control over the discussion and to ensure that the participants don‟t drift away from
the research objectives.

The main aim of any focus group is to give adequate information to the decision
maker regarding the issue at hand. The group dynamics is the crucial feature of any
focus group discussions. The success factors for focus group discussions are:
 Group dynamics;
 Members‟ willingness to contribute; and
 Ability of the moderator to keep the discussion relevant to the research
objectives.

There are several variations possible in focus group discussion such as small groups
or larger group size, use of single or multiple moderators, conducting the interview in
neutral setting or direct organizational involvement.

There are several advantages of focus group technique. The major advantage of
focus group is the quality of information provided by them.

Disadvantages and Misuses of Focus Group:

 The moderator can use focus group to support his or her own pre-
conceived notions and he may guide the discussions in that direction
 At times this technique is not specific and it tries to capture too many
things which may dilute the information collected
 As the focus group sample is drawn based on convenience and it is
smaller in size, the results of focus group research can‟t be
generalized.
 Moderator‟s biases and limitations will influence the overall
effectiveness of the research results.

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  The selection and recruitment of focus group participants is also very
challenging, especially if research requires to form a large number of
groups.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques involve indirect form of questioning which allows the

respondent to project their beliefs, opinions, feelings, attitudes and emotions on an
issue of concern. Projective techniques consist of several techniques of qualitative
data collection. These techniques are useful when the respondent is not at ease in
answering questions. The underlying objective is to learn more about the subject in
situations where they might not reveal their true thoughts under direct questioning.
The techniques relating to this area were developed in the field of motivational
science and clinical psychology. The techniques include pictorial construction, word
association tests, sentence completion tests and role plays.

In marketing research, these techniques are used to describe association with a

product or an organization indirectly, without explicitly stating the association. In
pictorial construction technique, the respondent is shown a picture and instructed to
describe his or her reactions by writing a short narrative story relating to the picture.
At times this technique is used in focus groups scenarios to get a better idea of how
respondents perceive an organization or product in a group setting. The difficulty
with such techniques comes in understanding and interpreting what the response
really means. Traditionally, this technique has proven quite useful in communications
industry where experts have used it in testing the impact of product packaging,
labels, brochures and advertisements.

Page No. 37
 UNIT 5: DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH DESIGN/PLAN

5.1 Research Design

5.2 Purpose of a Research Design
5.3 A Good Research Design
5.4 Basic Concepts Used in Research Design
5.5 Types of Research Design
5.5.1 Research Design for Exploratory Research
5.5.2 Research Design for Descriptive & Diagnostic Research
5.5.3 Research Design for Research Based on Hypothesis
Testing
5.6 Formulation of Research Plan
5.7 Ethical Issues in Conduct of Research

5.1 Research Design

Research design refers to description of the plan for collection of required research
data,and further analysis of data and interpretation of results. It describes the
research planning, and step-by-step methodology of research operations. In
other words, it presents detailed planning for collection, measurement and analysis
of data.

Thus, a research design:

 Describes nature of proposed study.
 Mentions purpose and objectives of the study.
 Acts as a master plan for research.
 Determines the kind of research to be conducted: exploratory, descriptive, or
causal; quantitative or qualitative research.
 Identifies the need for primary versus secondary data.
 Identifies sources of data.
 Sampling methods for research are discussed.
 Develops the data collection tools to be used for collecting primary data:
questionnaire, moderation guide etc.
 Timeframe and costs for the research are tentatively estimated.
 Methods of presentation/reporting of results are described.

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5.2 Purpose of a Research Design

The purpose and benefits of evolving a research design before actually starting the
business research are mentioned below:
 Every major and complex task needs advance planning regarding its
activities, the processes & strategies to be followed for completion of task by
consuming minimum amount of resources.
 Secondly, research design answers questions regarding the research issues
namely objectivity, validity, accuracy and empirical evidences.
 It also provides information regarding methods used for finding answers to the
research questions.
 The research problem can be stated in terms of research hypothesis. Another
objective of the research design is to control variance.
 Research design has significant bearing on reliability of the results achieved.
 Such a design, prepared before commencing the research, helps the
researcher in organising his/her efforts and thereby identifying and removing
the flaws and inadequacies,if any.

5.3 A Good Research Design

A good research design basically has (i) adequate degree of flexibility, (ii) proper
selection of research techniques, (iii) and minimum bias, but (iv) maximum reliability
of data.

In general, a good research design has following features:

(a) Nature and scope of the problem is clearly stated;
(b) It clearly brings out the objectives of the research study;
(c) It adequately develops the research questions, finds their answers, and
facilitates testing of research hypothesis;
(d) It is so structured that it caters for adequate validity;
(e) Relevant research variables (dependent and independent variables) should
be stated clearly and properly operationalised;

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 (f) It brings out reasonably accurate estimates for resources required for the
study, including time, money, persons, and logistics requirements;and
(g) It provides for specific research design depending on type of research method
and the particular data collection methodologyused.
(h) It gives due weightage to describing particular research design such as
survey design, exploratory design and sample design etc.

5.4 Basic Concepts Used in Research Design

Research Variables: A parameter which takes different values during a particular

research study is called as variable. The values taken may be qualitative or
quantitative depending on the nature of the research. As discussed in earlier unit,
there are two types of variables, namely independent variable and dependent
variables. The researcher can himself change the values of independentvariable
and examines & measures the corresponding change in value of dependent variable.
The independent variable can be assigned values independently. But value of
dependentvariables depends on the value taken by independent variables.

The research mainly concerns the independent and dependent variables.But

there can be some other parameters, not being studied under the research, but
these can affect the values taken by dependent variable, thus distorting the research
situation and leading to errors in the research, thereby reducing its reliability. Such
variables are called extraneous variables.

A research study has to be so designed that the effect on the dependent variables of
the study is attributed only by the independent variables of the study, and the effect
of extraneous variables is eliminated. In a real situation, if elimination is not possible
then effect of extraneous variables should be minimised.

Control:It refers to the extent by which the effect of extraneous variables can be
controlled during the study. Ideally, the extraneous variables should not affect the
values taken by the dependent variables. But in reality, this may not always be
possible. Therefore, the attribute ‘control’ refers to the degree by which the effect of
extraneous variables can be reduced or minimised during the research study.

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Research Questions& Research Hypothesis:The objective of the research study
is to investigate inter relationships between the research variables. This purpose of
research enquiry can also be stated in terms of question framed regarding effect of
certain parameters on other parameters. For example, the study may involve
studying effect of „rise in average environmental temperature‟ on „availability of water
in the rivers originating from mountains‟.

The objective may be reframed as finding answer to the research

question(s).For example, the research question may be framed as: What is the
effect of rise in average environmental temperature on availability of water in the
rivers originating from mountains?

The above question can also be transformed into relational statement expressed in
terms of causal effect of change in the independent variable on the value taken by
the dependent variables. Then such a relational statement can be tested, during the
research’ for being true or false. Such relational statements are called hypothesis
(meaning assumed relationship).

The hypothesis for the above example can be:“Higher the „average environment
temperature‟, lesser is the „availability of water originating from mountains‟”.

Based on the data collected during the research, effects of change in independent
variables on the dependent variables are studied and analysed. This analytic
information is then used to establish whether the proposed/hypothesised relationship
between independent variable „average environment temperature‟ and the
dependent variable „availability of water originating from mountains‟ is „true‟ or „false‟.

A hypothesis is a proposition which the researcher wants to verify. Often there may
be several competing hypotheses, either specified or implied. One objective of
research is to select among the possible hypotheses and to test them empirically
with the help of statistical tools in order to ascertain whether they are true or false.

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Hypothesis formulation deals with assumptions made by the researchers. There are
two kind of hypotheses: Null and Alternative hypothesis. Null hypothesis is an
assumption that there is no difference between the sample and population
phenomena. An alternative hypothesis states that the difference between the sample
and population phenomena is statistically significant.

The symbolused for null hypothesis is Ho and for alternative hypothesis is denoted
by Ha. The hypotheses are always formulated for population parameters or
characteristics rather than sample parameters. Null hypothesis always states that
there is “no significant difference.” It means that there is no significant difference
between the population mean and the sample mean. Whereas, alternative
hypothesis states that the difference is real.

5.5 Types of Research Design

Research design has to be evolved for the specific research technique/method used
in the study. There can be three different type of research situation depending on the
nature of the study. For example, aim of some study may be: (i) exploratory research
i.e. to explore the unknown aspects of the research situation, or (ii) descriptive and
diagnostic research, or (iii) study of causal relationship among variables based on
specifically framed research hypothesis. For three different objectives, different type
of research design is required.

5.5.1 Research Design for Exploratory Research

Exploratory research studies are conducted when deep insights are not available
regarding the main problem of research interest. The problem, as such, has not been
studied and even the variables have not been established earlier. The proposed
study aims to explore into the unknown aspects of the research problem. Such a
study provides a foundation for further empirical study at a later stage of time.

The exploratory research design is very flexible for consideration and studying
different aspects of the specified problem. It generally has three stages of
investigations:

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  extensive study of related literature,
 discussions or interview of persons having sufficient knowledge and
experience about the research situation, and
 synthesis and analysis information gathered from above two steps.

Study and survey of related published literature provides a very useful method for
gaining basic insights into the aspects of research problem. Views and theories
developed earlier by other persons are very useful for evolving framework for further
study and investigation.

Discussions and interview with experienced persons (also called experiencesurvey)

brings out the relationship between the variables and developing new ideas relating
to research problem. For this purpose, the experienced persons have to be carefully
selected to ensure a representation of different types of experiences.The
respondents so selected may be interviewed by the researcher after preparation of
an interview schedule for systematic questioning of informants. Such interviews have
to be very flexible as different approaches are necessary to seek out experience of
different persons. The respondents may raise many more issues not envisaged by
the researcher. It is better if a broad questionnaire is sent to the respondents in
advance. Such interviews being semi-structured may last for few hours. Audio
recording of discussions and interviews is preferable medium as it does not disturb
or distract the respondent. Information gathered from such in-depth discussions can
help the researcher in revising the plan of investigation more concisely and can help
in formulation of research hypothesis.

Analysis of information collected from above described steps provides clearer picture
about the research problem and may lead to formulation of research hypothesis.
This can set the stage for conduct of empirical research study at a later stage.

5.5.2 Research Design for Descriptive & Diagnostic Research

Descriptive studies relate to describing the characteristics of individuals or a group,

whereas the diagnostic studies aim at finding the frequency with which something
occurs, and determines if some variables are associated together.

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In both types of studies, researcher must clearly define the variables to be
measured, and also the measurement methods. The population for data collection
must also be identified properly. Further, the procedure to be used should be
carefully planned so that bias may be minimised and reliability be maximised.

Following steps and care is adopted for such studies/research:

 First step in such studies is to have in-depth understanding of problem
issues and formulating the specific objectives of the study so that relevant
data can be collected.
 Second step is selection of method for data collection.
 Thereafter, proper sampling design should be evolved for data collection.
Generally, random sampling is resorted for such research design.
 Equally important is the method to be adopted for data processing and
analysis.
 Methods for coding and tabulation of data should also be carefully defined.
 The research design should also cover reporting of results of the research
and presentation of important findings.

5.5.3 Research Design for Research Based on Hypothesis Testing

In hypothesis-testing based research studies, the researcher has to collect data for
testing causal relationship among variables stated in terms of hypothesis.Here
procedure for reducing bias and increasing reliability are important for
success of the study.

Research design is similar to that for descriptive studies. However, testing of

hypothesis (providing statements in terms of causal relationship among the
variables) requires quantitative data. Therefore, if data is available in qualitative
form, proper scaling technique should be adopted to get quantitative data for further
processing and analysis.

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5.6 Formulation of Research Plan

Research design can be restated in simple terms to serve as the guidelines and
directions for the researcher for planning and carrying out the research study. Such a
systematic description of research steps which helps the researcher in
organising his ideas in an orderly manner in document format is called as the
research plan. The plan-document provides all information regarding what steps are
to be taken during the research work, and also the reason thereof.

‘Research plan document’ provides for the following information / guidance to the
researcher:
 Problem definition
 Need for the study
 Relevance of the study to the business organization and/or to the society
 Plan for conducting literature survey
 Objectives of the research study
 Research questions/hypothesis to be tested
 Scope of the study
 Conceptual model of the research problem (presenting the independent
and dependent variables for the study, and the hypothesis for testing)
 Research methodology (presenting research method/techniques, sampling
design, data collection method, data processing plan, data analysis
techniques etc.)
 Plan for presentation of results, and
 Estimate for the resource required: timeframe, physical resources
required, and the funds requirement.

5.7Ethical Issues in Conduct of Research

The researchers face different ethical issues while collecting and interpreting the
data. The most common of them is the issue of maintaining the confidentiality
while collecting the primary data from the respondents. However, the professional
research organizations have developed a serious code of conduct to ensure

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that the data collected by using survey methods will be maintained for its
confidentiality.

The recommended policy for survey organizations to safeguard such confidentiality

includes:
 Number codes are used to identify the respondent so that the
confidentiality is maintained. Further, the information regarding the
respondent‟s name and code is maintained separately.
 The survey organizations don‟t share the contact details of the
respondents with anyone outside their organization i.e. not even with their
clients.
 Once the data collected from questionnaire is entered in the data sheets
on computers, it is advisable to destroy the questionnaires.
 The names and other contact details of the survey respondents is deleted
from their computer files.
 Statistical tabulations are presented in a way that it is not possible to
single out the individual respondents.

The researcher should take the consent of the author or the article writer while
dealing with their sensitive data from secondary sources. It is not always
possible for the researcher to obtain manyconsents; therefore, the researcher needs
to make a professional judgement regarding the re-use of the data. If it violates the
contract between the respondents and the primary researchers, then it should be
avoided.

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 UNIT 6: PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

6.1 Data Processing

6.1.1 Editing
6.1.2 Coding
6.1.3 Classification
6.1.4 Tabulation
6.2 Types of Analysis
6.3 Data Analysis and Use of Statistics
6.4 Statistical Software Packages

6.1 Data Processing

After collection of data, it has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the
procedure laid down in the research design.The processing of data refers to
converting data in a form that facilitates easy handling and analysis. The
processing operations include: editing, coding, classification, and tabulation.

6.1.1 Editing

The objective of this stage is to examine the raw data collected and to identify errors
and omissions made by the respondents in giving response, and also to incorporate
corrections where ever possible. Editing is carried out with a purpose to ensure
that the data is accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly
entered and as complete as possible.

Editing can be done at two occasions. Firstly, it can be done when the „data form‟
is being collected by the researcher or by the research staff, when the respondent
has not yet left. This is called fieldediting. Secondly, editing can be done when all
„response forms‟ are received in the central office, where the researcher or the
„research team staff‟ may carry out the editing operation. This is called centralediting.

Field Editing:The research staff while collecting the response form, can review the
entries made in the form for completeness of response, and also proper way of

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entries as stipulated in the response form. The field research staff should refrain
themselves from making any entry or correct the omission themselves.

Central Editing:It should be done when all „response forms‟, as completed by the
respondents, have been collected by the central office.Here, editing is done by a
single editor or by the same editing team. The editor(s) may correct only the obvious
errors like entry made at wrong place, wrong units written when correct unit arevery
obvious. The editor may strike out an obviously wrong reply when it is not possible to
guess the correct reply that the respondent would have given himself.

6.1.2 Coding

Itrefers to putting the responses in limited number of categories by assigning

numerals or other symbols to the responses given by the respondents. Coding
facilitates reducing the total responses to a small manageable number of classes
which contain the critical information required for analysis of data.Coding decisions
are generally taken while designing the response questionnaire. This makes it
possible to pre-code the questionnaire choices.

6.1.3 Classification

Many times, the large volume of raw data has to be reduced into homogenous
groups, if we are to get meaningful relationships.For this purpose, the data is
arranged in terms of groups or classes on the basis of common properties. Data with
one common property is kept in one particular class. In this way, the total data is
placed into number of groups or classes. Two types of classifications are common.

(a) Classification as per the Common Attributes: Such common attribute can
be of two types, namely descriptive property (like gender, literacy etc) and
numerical property/characteristics (like weight, income, etc). By selecting one
property or characteristic, data can be divided in two groups: one group
having the selected characteristics and other group not having it.
(b) Classification as per Class Intervals:Data with numerical properties, as
mentioned above,can be classified using class intervals of statistics of

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 variables namely age, height, income etc).For example, if the basis of
classification is in terms of annual income, say in thousands of pounds, then
class intervals may be 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60 etc. Data can then
be arranged as per such class intervals, i.e.grouping the data for a class
interval together as one group. Each group has a lower limit and one higher
limit; and interval; between the two limits is called range of classification.

6.1.4 Tabulation

For ease of handling the data, it is generally arranged in some concise and logical
order. Tabulation is one method for systematic and logical summarisation of
research data. Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
Earlier tabulation was done manually, but now with easy availability of computers,
the tabulation of even large amount of data can be done quickly with the help of
computers.

6.2 Types of Analysis

The objective of any business research or social research is to investigate the

pattern among various research variables, and/or finding relationships or causal
influence among various research variables. Therefore, data analysis involves
manipulation of data, and using appropriate analytic techniques to bring out
patterns and relationships among the research variables. Analysis may involve
study of one variable at a time, or simultaneous analysis of number of various
variables. The first type of analysis is called descriptiveanalysis, and the second
type in called as inferentialanalysis.

(a) Descriptiveanalysis is generally used for study of distribution pattern of one

research variable at a time, and facilitates profile study in social groups,
organisation, and even the society. Therefore, it is also called as the uni-
dimensional analysis.However, descriptive analysis can be extended to two
variables (described as bi-variable analysis) or more than two variables
(multivariate analysis).

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(b) Inferentialanalysis is also called as statistical analysis. Being inferential in
nature, it involves study of two variables at a time, and also study of more
than two variables.Such analysis generally involves study of two or more
variables using statistical techniques. Common types of inferential analysis
include bivariate and multivariate analysisnamely causal analysis, correlation
analysis, multiple regression analysis, and multiple discriminant analysis.
Advance research on complex issues involve other types of analysis namely
analysis of variance, and canonical analysis etc. Common types of inferential
analysis are described below.
 Bivariate Correlation Analysis: The relation between two variables
can be studied through data collection in the group and analysing the
responses to investigate correlation i.e. relation between the two
variables. This can be done using statistical software package. The
data obtained from the members of the group is stored as two different
„arrays‟ corresponding to the two variables. By identifying the two
variables on the statistical software, „command‟ is given for computing
bivariate correlation between these variable.
 Causal Relationship or Multiple Correlation Analysis:Investigation
regarding how one or more variables affect changes in another variable
is called causal analysis. In statistical term, this study is called as
multivariate analysis.In the statistical software, the data for the group
regarding various variables is stored as different „arrays’, and
„command‟ is given as per prescribed format for computing multiple
correlation. The results are displayed as the „output‟ provided in the
tabular format i.e. various scores on the output table indicate
correlation between the set of two particular variables.
 Advanced Statistical Analysis: When relationship between more
than two variables (generally larger number of variables) is studied,
variety of advanced types of analysis are done using statistical
software packages.

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6.3 Data Analysis and Use of Statistics

As stated in the above sections, data analysis is generally done through use of two
types of analysis: descriptive analysis and inferential analysis.

Descriptive analysis is based on establishment of various pattern present in the data

regarding various variables. Inferential analysis is used for investigation of different
types of relationship among the research variables.Various analysis techniques used
in social science research are described below.
a) Measure of Central Tendency: It indicates the point around which the values
of the particular variable tend to cluster. It is also called statistical average.
Mean, median and mode are generally used to express central tendency.
 Average or Mean: It is also called as the arithmetic average defined
by sum of all values taken by the variable divided by the numbers of
values taken. It is the most widely used measure of central tendency.
 Median: It is defined as the value of the middle item of the series when
arranged in ascending or descending order. Half of the items lie below
this value and half of the items lie above this value.
 Mode: The mode in a distribution is the item around which there is
maximum concentration of item values.
b) Composition/Spread in terms of Percentages: A particular variable may
take number of values, descriptive or numerical. The spread in terms of
values can be measured and described in terms of percentage of total values
taken. For example, the respondents are asked to give their response
regarding „honesty‟ of a particular leader in terms of three options: „honest‟,
„do not know‟ and „not honest‟. The three views expressed can be described
in terms of percentages. For this example, the result may be like this: 45
percent of respondent feel that the leader is „honest‟, 32 percent feel that the
leader is „not honest‟ and 23 percent of respondents do not have any view as
they „do not know‟.
c) Dispersion (or degree of spread):An average indicates the central point
around which the values taken by the variables are spread, but complete
picture regarding the spread is not being provided.

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  Range: It is the simple way of describing the dispersion defined by the
difference between the values of the extreme items of a variable.
 Mean Deviation: It is the average of the „deviation‟ of each item, from
the mean of all variable values. If we compute the difference between
each item value and the mean value, then the sum of all such
„differences‟ so computed divided by number of items is the mean
deviation, with negative sign being ignored.
 Standard Deviation:It is defined as the square-root of the average of
„squares of deviations‟, when deviations are the difference between
item value from the arithmetic average.
d) Measure of Relationship:
 Simple Correlation:This is a popular method for determining degree
of relationship (correlation) between two variables. It is based on the
assumption that there is linear relationship between the two variables.
 Partial Correlation:It measures relationship between two variables in
such a manner that the effect of all other variables has been
eliminated.
 Simple Regression:Regression provides the relationship between two
variables in terms of a regression equation as given under:

Y=a+bX
Here „X‟ is the independent variable value; „b‟ is the coefficient of
correlation, and „a‟ is the constant of regression. Then „Y’ is the
estimated value of dependent variable Y.
 MultipleRegression: When a dependent variable is function of two
independent variables, the analysis concerning the relationship is
called multiple correlation and the equation describing the relation is
called multiple regression equation.

The above analysis can be easily carried out using the statistical
software packages. Here values of the variables measured through data
collection is stored in terms of „arrays‟ for each variable, then appropriate
„command‟ is provided to the software, which provides the desired values as
the output printout.

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6.4 Statistical Software Packages

MS Office software has ‘EXEL Spreadsheet” software enabling statistical analysis,

in which variable values can be stored in terms of „arrays‟ and further statistical
analysis can be carried out between the different variables using the software
provided as part of EXEL Package. Univariate analysis (involving only one variable)
and bivariate analysis (involving two variables) can be easily be done even by
persons not very conversant with statistics.

Further, another packages popular with new researchers is the SPSS Package
which “is a comprehensive software system designed to handle all steps in an
analysis from data listing, tabulation, and descriptive statistics to complex statistical
analysis”. SPSS is a registered trademark of SPSS Inc, USA. Many other statistical
software packages are also available in the market for use by statistics experts. But
the above two software are most common among the new researchers.

Page No. 53
UNIT 7: INTERPRETATION & PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

7.1 Findings of the Research Study

7.1.1 Descriptive Statistics
7.1.2 Variable Relationships
7.1.3 Hypothesis Testing & Answers to Research Questions
7.2 Reporting & Presentation
7.3 Steps Involved in Report Writing
7.4 Report Layout
7.5 Presentation of Report
7.6 Ethical Issues in Research Reporting

Interpretation basically refers to considering the findings of data analysis,

synthesising the collected facts and drawing inferences in the context of the
objectives of the study. Usefulness and utility of research is in its proper
interpretation.Descriptive and inferential statistics provide important results to be
linked and analysed further for formulation of findings and their interpretation.

During interpretation of findings, the researcher gets an opportunity to provide

explanation for the facts, patterns and the relationships brought out during the
study. The research may lead to some extraneous information, which must be
considered while interpreting the results. Such information can facilitate in
understanding new factors relating to the research study.

7.1 Findings of the Research Study

The findings of the study should be carefully described and their inter-relationships
should also be analysed. Findings from the research studies can be identified from
two simple sources: descriptive analysis and relational analysis of data.

7.1.1 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics provide useful insights regarding the nature and values taken
by the independent and dependent variables.

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Generally, the descriptive statistics regarding independent and dependent variables
is presented in tabular format, indicating the findings regarding range,minimum
value, maximum value, mean, median, mode and standard deviation. These are
interesting findings and should be presented while pointing implication of such
values on the research subject. Variable variance can also be presented in terms of
percentages of total responses received. Some researchers use pie diagrams to
present such variances. „High‟ and „low‟ values taken by some variables may be an
important issue in interpretation of findings.

7.1.2 Variable Relationships

The relationships among variables brought out through the study need to be
analysed in depth and their impact on the subject of study also needs to be
presented accordingly. Causal relations are the important findings in any research
study. Many-time, one variable appears to be influencing the other variable. But at
the same time, other variables may also the influencing the value of the variable
being studied. Therefore, careful analysis of multi-variable relationship is necessary
which should be interpreted very carefully.Partial correlation is very useful in which
correlation between two variables is studied while the effect of other variables is
eliminated. Relationship prediction is done using regression analysis. Therefore, in
a research involving number of research variables, relationship study should be
carried out using variety of methods, both for correlation and regression.

Relationship investigated may be represented in diagrammatic manner. For

example, causal relationships can be presented through path diagram, which
provides a powerful tool for interpretation of findings and the results.

7.1.3 Hypothesis Testing & Answers to Research Questions

Research hypothesis is a relational statementin terms of two variables, and has
important role in interpretation of results. As natural, some hypotheses are found to
be true and other may be found to be not true. Therefore, interpretation of results
presents the composite picture. It also helps in finding answers to the research
questions raised before start of the study. Therefore, the interpretation should also
discuss the objectives of the study, and discuss the degree to which these

Page No. 55
have been achieved. Number of times, the results may not be on expected lines,
but still this presents an important finding and provides platform for conducting
further research on the subject matter.

7.2 Reporting & Presentation

Any research study remains incomplete till a report is prepared brining out all
findings and interpretation of results achieved. It is very appropriate that the research
findings and results are recorded and made available to peers in the field and others
for study and reference. It is considered to be the last step in the research
without which it is not completed.

7.3 Steps Involved in Report Writing

The research report should cover the background of the study. Therefore, first step
towards report writing is collection and compilation of background material. It is
necessary to develop the subject both logically in terms of the subject matter; and
chronologically covering study and research on the subject for developing subject
knowledge. After this, an outline of framework for describing the research in written
form is developed. Now, the procedure followed for the research and research
findings are described as part of first-cut of written report.

As the next step, the procedure and findings are elaboratedfurther for better and
complete communication to the reader who may be conversant with overall subject
matter, but may not be an expert or authority on the subject. However, the write-up
must not be found to be wanting in presentation even by the experts. Finally,
bibliography and references are written and made part of the research report.

7.4 Report Layout

The report document should be a professional document presenting the (i)
background information / knowledge, (ii) objectives of the study, (iii) method and
procedure adopted, (iv) data collection technique, (v) findings from data analysis,
and finally (vi) the inferences drawn.

A suggested layout of the research report is mentioned below.

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(a) Introductory Write-up: The purpose of this part of the report is to make the
reader understand the background for research, reasons for carrying out the
research, previous knowledge and research on the subject matter. It covers
the followings:-
 Title of the report
 List of contents
 General background
 Need for this study
 Objectives of the study
 Scope of the study
 Brief outline of research methodology
 Relevance of the study

(b) Present research study – planning & preparation: Before starting the
research study, in its physical form, considerable planning and preparatory
work is required to be done, which starts from extensive literature review and
covers identification of variables and ending with finalising methodology for
data collection & measurement. This part of the research report covers the
following specific steps:-
 Literature review
 Conceptual model for the research study
 Variables for the study,
 Formulation of research questions and the hypotheses to be tested
 Research methodology
 Design of the questionnaire
 Sampling design
 Scaling & other techniques used for measurement of data

(c) Conduct of present research: This phase of description and reporting

covers the following aspects:-
 Data collection: the method & the process
 Processing of data
 Analysis of data

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  Research findings and the interpretation of results

(d) Summary of the research findings and recommendations: Before ending

the report, a brief summary of research finding and recommendations s
presented asper following steps:-
 Major research findings
 Major recommendation emerging from the research
 Significant research contributions
 Relevance of study and research findings
 Limitations of the present study
 Scope / suggestions for future work

(e) Executive Summary: A modern trend is to be provide a „executive summary‟

in the beginning or the report, many times provided even before the „content
page‟. As the name suggests, it serves to provide a useful brief report, to
business executives / leaders, giving information regarding the research study
and the findings/results of the study. Here, emphasis is less on the
methodology, but on the results of the study and their implications for the
business world.

(f) Referencing:Bibliographyandreferences are to be given at the end of the

report, as per a standard procedure of referencing, preferably using the
„Harvard System of Referencing‟.

The common order in referencing for books may be as given below:

 Authors‟ name(s)
 Title of book (in italics)
 Publisher
 Year of publication
 Page number from where matter is being quoted

As an example, it may be as under: -

Stanley Bredford, “Research Methodology”, Dovers Publications, 2003, p346

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 The ordering in case of publication in a journal may be as under:
 Authors‟ names
 Journal‟s name within sign of quotations (in italics)
 Year and Issue Number
 Page Numbers from where matter is being quoted

As an example, it may be as under: -

E.W. Smith and R.G. Robbinson, “The Journal of Social Science Research”,
2004,Issue 4, pp 345-456

(g) Annexures to the report: The text of questionnaire or schedule used for data
collection is to be placed as appendices to the report. It may also present the
details in terms of tabular format, pie diagram etc.

7.5 Presentation of Report

Generally, research reports are presented to the professional peers and/or to the
gathering of experts. As a modern trend, oral presentation is made by the
researcher while taking support from the computers. Such presentation is called
computer based oral presentation. The “power-point presentation software” available
as part of MS OFFICE software package is used.

The text regarding the research is typed in the power-point software, where facility
exists for showing tables, graphs, histograms, and pie diagrams. It facilitates making
diagrammatic presentation of data and results. Pictures stored at other place in the
computer can also be imported in the power-point presentation.

Generally, the presentation covers the following:-

 Title of the Research
 Composition of the Research Team
 Sponsoring Agency, if any
 Acknowledgements (to persons, agencies who have provided information and
other type of research support)

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  Objectives & Scope of the Study
 Research Evidences collected through Literature Survey
 Research Variables for the Research Study
 Research Questions and / or Hypothesis for the Study
 Research Methodology covering Sampling & Scaling adopted
 Data Collection & Analysis (in brief giving only the highlights)
 Research Findings & Results
 Implication of Results
 Recommendations Emerging from the Research Findings & Results
 Scope for Future Research

When presentation is notmadeinperson, an audio-visual presentation may be

recorded for viewing by interested persons, at a later time.

7.6 Ethical Issues in Research Reporting

Honesty in research and in presentation of results is a basic ethical issue in

research.Following issues are very important and must be followed in true spirit:
 Basic ethical issue is that the researcher should have actually conducted
the research, and dataishonestly collected, recorded and analysed.
 All reporting must be in own language of the researcher and
plagiarisminanyway, mustnotberesorted, as such steps, if adopted,
destroys the faith of professional peers and brings very bad name to the
researcher.
 The research should be planned and conducted keeping in view the
sensitivities of respondents and the social community.
 The research report should not show any kind of bias or disrespect to any
person, living or dead, or to any community.

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