Index

-Beginner to pre-intermediate

+Adjectives and prepositions…………………………………………………………………………………………3

+Adjectives ending in '-ed' and '-ing'………………………………………………………………………………5
+Articles 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….6
+Articles 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8
+Countable and uncountable nouns 1…………………………………………………………………….…….10
+Countable and uncountable nouns 2………………………………………………………………………..…12
+Past continuous and past simple………………………………………………………………………………...13
+Question forms………………………………………………………………………………………………………....15
+Verbs followed by '-ing' or by 'to' + infinitive 1…………………………………………………………….17

1
Index

-Intermediate to upper intermediate

+'as' and 'like'………………………………………………………………………………………………………………18

+'enough'…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….21
+'in spite of', 'despite', 'although', 'even though' and 'though'………………………………………23
+'just', 'yet', 'still' and 'already'…………………………………………………………………………………….25
+'so' and 'such'…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….27
+'used to' + infinitive and 'be' or 'get used to' + '-ing'……………………………………………………..29
+'wish' and 'if only'……………………………………………………………………………………………………….30
+Adjectives – gradable and non-gradable……………………………………………………………………..31
+British English and American English…………………………………………………………………………..33
+Capital letters and apostrophes………………………………………………………………………………….36
+Conditionals 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….39
+Conditionals 2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41
+Future continuous and future perfect…………………………………………………………………………43
+Future plans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….44
+Modals – deductions about the past……………………………………………………………………………45
+Modals – deductions about the present………………………………………………………………………46
+Modals – permission and obligation……………………………………………………………………………47
+Modifying comparisons………………………………………………………………………………………………50
+Participle clauses……………………………………………………………………………………………………….52
+Passives……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..54
+Past ability…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………56
+Past habits – 'used to', 'would' and the past simple……………………………………………………..57
+Past perfect……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….59
+Phrasal verbs……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..61
+Present perfect………………………………………………………………………………………………………….63
+Present perfect simple and continuous……………………………………………………………………….65
+Question tags…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….67
+Reflexive pronouns…………………………………………………………………………………………………….69
+Relative clauses – defining relative clauses…………………………………………………………………71
+Relative clauses – non-defining relative clauses………………………………………………………….73
+Reported speech 1 – statements…………………………………………………………………………………75
+Reported speech 2 – questions……………………………………………………………………………………78
+Reported speech 3 – reporting verbs…………………………………………………………………………..80
+Stative verbs………………………………………………………………………………………………………………82
+The future – degrees of certainty………………………………………………………………………………..84
+Verbs and prepositions………………………………………………………………………………………………86
+Verbs followed by '-ing' or by 'to' + infinitive 2…………………………………………………………….88

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-Beginner to pre-intermediate
+Adjectives and prepositions
Do you know how to use adjectives with prepositions like interested in or similar to?

Look at these examples to see how adjectives are used with prepositions.

I'm interested in the idea.

My jacket is similar to yours.
She's brilliant at maths.
My neighbour is angry about the party.

Grammar explanation
Some adjectives go with certain prepositions. There are no grammatical rules for
which preposition is used with which adjective, so it's a good idea to try to learn them together. To
help you do this, write new vocabulary in your notebook in a sentence or phrase.

However, there are some patterns that can help you. Let's look at them first. Remember that a
preposition is followed by a noun or a gerund (-ing form).

With at

We use at with adjectives like good/bad/amazing/brilliant/terrible, etc. to talk about skills and
abilities.

He's really good at English.

She's amazing at the piano.
They're terrible at organising anything.
I'm not very good at drawing.

With about

We often use about with adjectives of feelings like

angry/excited/happy/nervous/sad/stressed/worried, etc. to explain what is causing that feeling.

I'm angry about the decision.

He's nervous about the presentation.
She's excited about the new job.
They were worried about the exam.

3
With of

However, sometimes we use of with feelings.

She was afraid of telling her mum.

I'm frightened of having an accident.
He's scared of flying.
You should be proud of your progress.

With to

We can use to to show the connection between people or things.

He's married to the director.

I'm addicted to my phone.
I'm allergic to nuts.
It's similar to the old one.

We can also use to to talk about someone's behaviour towards someone else.

They were really friendly to me.

Was he nice to you?
He is always polite to everyone.
She was very rude to the waitress.

Here are some other useful adjectives with prepositions.

With for

Exercise is good for you.

Stress is bad for you.
The town is famous for its cheese.
I'm responsible for the financial side of the business.

With in

She's interested in the project.

They want someone who's experienced in design.
I didn't want to get involved in the argument.

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+Adjectives ending in '-ed' and '-ing'
Do you know the difference between bored and boring?

Look at these examples to see how adjectives ending in -ed and -ing are used.

I was really bored in that presentation.

That was a really boring presentation.

Grammar explanation
Adjectives that end in -ed (e.g. bored, interested) and adjectives that end in -ing (e.g. boring,
interesting) are often confused.

-ed adjectives

Adjectives that end in -ed generally describe emotions – they tell us how people feel.

I was so bored in that lesson, I almost fell asleep.

He was surprised to see Helen after all those years.
She was really tired and went to bed early.

-ing adjectives

Adjectives that end in -ing generally describe the thing that causes the emotion – a boring lesson
makes you feel bored.

Have you seen that film? It's really frightening.

I could listen to her for hours. She's so interesting.
I can't sleep! That noise is really annoying!

Here are some adjectives that can have both an -ed and an -ing form.

-ed -ing -ed -ing

annoyed annoying frightened frightening
bored boring interested interesting
confused confusing surprised surprising
disappointed disappointing tired tiring
excited exciting worried worrying

5
+Articles 1
Do you know how to use a, an and the?

Look at these examples to see how articles are used.

She's a doctor.
I need an umbrella.
Have you heard the news?
I don't like spiders.

Grammar explanation
Here are some of the most important things to know about using articles.

Jobs

When we say what people's jobs are, we usually use a/an.

He's an architect.
She's a scientist.
My grandmother was a teacher.

Singular nouns

Singular, countable nouns always have an article – a/an or the (or another determiner – my, your,
this, that, etc.).

We use a/an – the indefinite article – when we talk about something for the first time, or
something that is part of a group or type.

I saw a good film yesterday.

Do you want a drink?

We use a when the word that follows it begins with a consonant sound. We use an when it's
followed by a vowel sound. This makes pronunciation easier.

She has a university degree.

It took me an hour to get home.

We use the – the definite article – when the listener already knows which thing we are talking
about because it was mentioned before or because there's only one of them.

I'm going to take the dog for a walk.

Have you seen the car key?
They go to the school next to the bridge.

6
Things in general

When we talk about things in general, we normally use a plural or uncountable noun with no
article.

Birds eat worms.

Water freezes at 0°C.
Children need a lot of sleep.

Particular groups of things

When we talk about a particular group of things, we use the.

We went to the zoo and saw the kangaroos. (These are the particular kangaroos in that zoo – not
kangaroos in general.)

7
+Articles 2
Do you know when you need to use the in common phrases and place names?

Look at these examples to see when the is and isn't used.

I'm going to bed.

I walk to work.
My children are going to start school.
I visited the school yesterday.
Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.

Grammar explanation
Here are some ways we use articles in common phrases and place names.

Common phrases

We don't usually use an article in expressions with bed, work and home.

go to bed / be in bed
go to work / be at work / start work / finish work
go home / be at home / get home / stay at home

We also don't normally use an article in expressions with school, university, prison and hospital.

start school / go to school / be at school

go to university / be at university
be sent to prison / go to prison / be in prison
go to hospital / be in hospital

But we usually use the if someone is just visiting the place, and not there as a
student/prisoner/patient, etc.

My son has started school now. I went to the school to meet his teacher.
I went to the prison a lot when I was a social worker.
I'm at the hospital. My sister has just had a baby.

8
Place names

We don't normally use an article for continents, most countries, cities, towns, lakes, mountains or
universities. So, we say:

Africa, Asia, Europe

India, Ghana, Peru, Denmark
Addis Ababa, Hanoi, New York, Moscow
Lake Victoria, Lake Superior, Lake Tanganyika
Mount Everest, Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Elbrus
Cardiff University, Harvard University, Manchester University

Some countries are different. Country names with United have the. There are other countries
which are exceptions too. So, we say:

the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States of America
the Bahamas, the Gambia

Seas and oceans, mountain ranges and rivers have the:

the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Mediterranean

the Andes, the Himalayas, the Alps
the Nile, the Amazon, the Yangtze

Universities with of in the title also have the:

the University of Cape Town, the University of Delhi, the University of Tokyo

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+Countable and uncountable nouns 1
Do you know how to use a, some, any, much and many?

Look at these examples to see how to use countable and uncountable nouns in a sentence.

I'm making a cup of tea.

There's some money on the table.
Have we got any bread?
How many chairs do we need?
How much milk have we got?

Grammar explanation
Nouns can be countable or uncountable. Countable nouns can be counted, e.g. an apple, two
apples, three apples, etc. Uncountable nouns cannot be counted, e.g. air, rice, water, etc. When
you learn a new noun, you should check if it is countable or uncountable and note how it is used in
a sentence.

Countable nouns

For positive sentences we can use a/an for singular nouns or some for plurals.

There's a man at the door.

I have some friends in New York.

For negatives we can use a/an for singular nouns or any for plurals.

I don't have a dog.

There aren't any seats.

Uncountable nouns

Here are some examples of uncountable nouns:

bread rice coffee information money advice luggage furniture

We use some with uncountable nouns in positive sentences and any with negatives.

There's some milk in the fridge.

There isn't any coffee.

10
Questions

In questions we use a/an, any or how many with countable nouns.

Is there an email address to write to?

Are there any chairs?
How many chairs are there?

And we use any or how much with uncountable nouns.

Is there any sugar?

How much orange juice is there?

But when we are offering something or asking for something, we normally use some.

Do you want some chocolate?

Can we have some more chairs, please?

We also use some in a question when we think the answer will be 'yes'.

Have you got some new glasses?

Other expressions of quantity

A lot of (or lots of) can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.

There are lots of apples on the trees.

There is a lot of snow on the road.

Notice that we don't usually use many or much in positive sentences. We use a lot of instead.

They have a lot of money.

However, in negative sentences we use not many with countable nouns and not much with
uncountable nouns.

There are a lot of carrots but there aren't many potatoes.

There's lots of juice but there isn't much water.

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+Countable and uncountable nouns 2
Do you know how to use a few, few, very little and a bit of?

Look at these examples to see how these quantifiers are used with countable and uncountable
nouns.

I have a few friends, so I'm not lonely.

She has few friends, so she's quite lonely.
We've got a bit of time before our train. Shall we get a coffee?
We've got very little time before our train. Hurry up!

Grammar explanation
A few and a bit of or a little mean some. Often we feel this amount is enough or more than we
expected. We use a few with plural nouns and a bit of or a little with uncountable nouns.

I have a few ideas.

I've brought a few friends.
There's a bit of milk left.
It needs a little more work.

We use few and very little to show that we are talking about a small amount. Often we feel this
amount is not enough or less than we expected. Few is for countable nouns and very little is for
uncountable nouns.

Few people came to the meeting.

There are few places where you can still see these birds.
We have very little time.
I have very little money.

Note that you can use little without very, but it is less common and sounds quite formal.

She had little water.

12
+Past continuous and past simple
Do you know how to use the past continuous and past simple?

Look at these examples to see how the past continuous and past simple are used.

When I woke up this morning, it was snowing.

I was sleeping when you called me.

Grammar explanation
The past continuous and the past simple help us to show how two past actions or situations are
connected.

Past simple

The past simple shows us that an action was in the past, not in the present. Regular past simple
verbs have -ed at the end (e.g. called, played, arrived). Irregular verbs have a different form,
usually with a different vowel sound (e.g. wake → woke, break → broke, feel → felt).

My parents called me yesterday.

I woke up early this morning.
Sam played basketball when he was at university.

We make the negative with didn't and the infinitive verb.

My parents didn't call me yesterday.

I didn't wake up early this morning.

We make the question form with did and then the subject and infinitive verb.

Did you wake up early this morning?

Did Sam play basketball when he was at university?

Past continuous

The past continuous shows us that the action was already in progress at a certain time in the past.

What were you doing at 8 p.m. last night? I was studying.

This means that I started studying before 8 p.m. and I continued after 8 p.m.

The past continuous can also show that an activity was in progress for some time, not just for a
moment.

We were cleaning the house all morning.

13
We make the past continuous with was or were and the -ing form of the verb.

She couldn't come to the party. She was working.

Three years ago, we were living in my home town.
I tried to give him some advice, but he wasn't listening.
What were you doing this time last year?

Past continuous and past simple

‘When’ we use these two tenses together, it shows us that the past simple action happened in the
middle of the past continuous action, ‘while’ it was in progress.

While I was studying, I suddenly felt sleepy.

We often use these tenses to show an action interrupting another action.

I broke my leg when I was skiing.

As I was going to work, I saw an old friend.
We were watching television when the power went off.

Can you see a difference in the meaning of these two sentences?

When the guests arrived, Jane was cooking dinner.

When the guests arrived, Jane cooked dinner.

In the first one, Jane started cooking dinner before the guests arrived. We know that because it
uses the past continuous. In the second sentence, the guests arrived first and then Jane started
cooking.

14
+Question forms
Do you know how to make questions?

Look at these examples to see how questions are made.

Is he a teacher?
Does she eat meat?
When did you get here?
How much does a train ticket cost?

Grammar explanation
To make questions, we often put the verb before the subject. This is called inversion.

Affirmative Question
I am late. Am I late?
I can help. Can I help?
She is sleeping. Is she sleeping?
We have met before. Have we met before?

If there is a question word (why, what, where, how, etc.), it goes before the verb.

Question Question with question word

Are you late? Why are you late?
Was she there? When was she there?
Can I help? How can I help?
Have we met before? Where have we met before?

This is true for sentences with be, sentences that have auxiliary verbs (e.g. They are waiting. She
has finished.) and sentences with modal verbs (can, will, should, might, etc.).

Questions in the present simple and past simple

For other verbs in the present simple, we use the auxiliary verb do/does in the question.

Affirmative Question Question with question word

You work at home. Do you work at home? Where do you work?
It costs £10. Does it cost £10? How much does it cost?

We use the auxiliary verb did in the past simple.

15
Affirmative Question Question with question word
She went home. Did she go home? Where did she go?
They went to the cinema. Did they go to the cinema? Where did they go?

Subject questions

In some questions, who or what is the subject of the verb. There is no inversion of subject and
verb in these questions.

Who broke the window?

Who is knocking on the door?

16
+Verbs followed by '-ing' or by 'to' + infinitive 1
Do you know when to use -ing and when to use to + infinitive after a verb?

Look at these examples to see how the verb forms are used.

I enjoy learning languages.

I want to learn a new language.

Grammar explanation
A verb can be followed by another verb. The second one usually needs to change into the -ing
form or the to + infinitive form. Which form you need depends on what the first verb is.

Verbs followed by the -ing form

When enjoy, admit and mind are followed by another verb, it must be in the -ing form.

I enjoy travelling.
He admitted stealing the necklace.
I don't mind waiting if you're busy.

Other verbs in this group include avoid, can't help, consider, dislike, feel like, finish, give up, miss,
practise and suggest.

Like and love can be followed by the -ing form and the to + infinitive form. They are both correct.

Verbs followed by to + infinitive form

When want, learn and offer are followed by another verb, it must be in the to + infinitive form.

I want to speak to the manager.

She's learning to play the piano.
He offered to help us wash up.

Other verbs in this group include afford, agree, ask, choose, decide, expect, hope, plan, prepare,
promise, refuse and would like.

17
-Intermediate to upper intermediate
+'as' and 'like'
Do you know how to use as and like correctly?

Look at these examples to see how as and like are used.

I worked as an actor for two years.

I went home early as I felt ill.
He looks as if he hasn't slept.
As you know, this is the third time I've had to complain.
He looks like his dad.
She's like a sister to me.
Try to do something relaxing, like reading a book or having a bath.

Grammar explanation
as and like are often confused since they can both be used for comparisons. There are, however,
important differences.

Making comparisons

as + adjective + as and as much as

We often use the structure as + adjective + as or as much as to say if something has, or doesn't
have, the same amount of that quality as something else.

She loves curry as much as I do.

He's not as tall as his brother.
It's not as expensive as the other hotel.
That dog is as big as that child!

You also have to use as in the expression the same as.

Your phone is the same as mine.

Texting is not the same as speaking in person.

18
like + noun

In the following comparisons, like is followed by a noun or a pronoun to say that two things are
similar.

He's like a father to me.

She's acting like a child.
It's like a burger but with big mushrooms instead of bread.
There are lots of people like us.

It is also common to make comparisons using like with verbs of the senses.

She looks like her mother.

It sounds like a cat.
Nothing tastes like homemade lemonade.
It smells like medicine.
It feels like cotton.

as if/as though + clause

As if and as though can be used to compare a real situation to an imaginary situation. They are
followed by a clause (a subject and verb).

You look as if you've seen a ghost.

I felt as if I was floating above the ground.
You talk as though we're never going to see each other again.

Giving examples

We can say like or such as to give examples.

You could try a team sport like football, basketball or hockey.

You should take something soft, such as a towel, to lie on.

Talking about a job or function

We can use as + noun to talk about a job or function.

I worked as a shop assistant for two years.

He used his coat as a blanket to keep warm.

19
as to connect two phrases

as can be used as a conjunction to connect two phrases. It can have different meanings.

as = 'because'

All the tickets were sold out as we got there too late.
As the road was closed, I had to park on the next street.

as = 'while' or 'during the time that'

She called as I was getting out of the bath.

As they were arriving, we were leaving.

as = 'in the way that'

As we expected, it started to rain.

As you know, classes restart on 15 January.
As I said, I think this project will be a challenge.

** Note that in informal speech, people sometimes say like for 'in the way that'.

Like I said, I didn't know her.

20
+'enough'
Do you know how to use the word enough?

Look at these examples to see how enough is used.

She's not old enough to walk yet.

We are not acting fast enough to stop climate change.
I don't read enough.
Is there enough coffee for everyone?
We've had enough of their lies.

Grammar explanation
enough means 'as much as necessary'. It can be used with an adjective, an adverb, a verb or a
noun. It can also act as a pronoun.

With adjectives and adverbs

enough comes after adjectives and adverbs.

I'm not tall enough to reach the top shelf.

Your marks are good enough to study engineering at university.
I couldn't write quickly enough and I ran out of time.
I've helped at conferences often enough to know what can go wrong.

With verbs

enough comes after verbs.

I make sure I drink enough during the day.

I don't read enough but I'm going to start downloading books to my phone.

With nouns

enough comes before nouns.

There isn't enough bread to make sandwiches.

Have you got enough money?

21
As a pronoun

enough can also be used without a noun.

I'll get some more chairs. There aren't enough.

A: Do you want more coffee? B: No, I've had enough, thanks.

We know what the noun is because of the context.

With an adjective and a noun

When enough is used with an adjective and a noun, two positions are possible but the meaning
changes.

We haven't got big enough envelopes.

We haven't got enough big envelopes.

When enough is after the adjective (big enough envelopes), it describes the adjective – the
envelopes are too small. When enough is before the adjective (enough big envelopes), it describes
the noun phrase – we have some big envelopes, but we need more.

enough of

We normally only use enough of when it is followed by a determiner or a pronoun (a/an/the,

this/that, my/your/his, you/them, etc.).

There isn't enough of that bread to make sandwiches for everyone.

I've seen enough of his work to be able to recommend him.
There's enough of us to make a difference.

22
+'in spite of', 'despite', 'although', 'even though' and
'though'
Do you know how to connect two contrasting ideas?

Look at these examples to see how although, even though, in spite of and despite are used.

Although we don't agree, I think she's a brilliant speaker.

Even though we don't agree, I think she's a brilliant speaker.
In spite of the law, people continue to use mobile phones while driving.
Despite the law, people continue to use mobile phones while driving.

Grammar explanation
Although, even though, in spite of and despite are all used to link two contrasting ideas or show
that one fact makes the other fact surprising. They can all be used at the beginning or in the
middle of the sentence.

Despite the rain, we enjoyed the festival.

We enjoyed the festival, despite the rain.

The main difference between although, even though, in spite of and despite is that they are used
with different structures.

in spite of / despite

After in spite of and despite, we use a noun, gerund (-ing form of a verb) or a pronoun.

They never made much money, in spite of their success.

In spite of the pain in his leg, he completed the marathon.
Despite having a headache, I had a great birthday.
The train was cancelled. In spite of that, we arrived on time.

Note that it is common to use in spite of and despite with the expression the fact that, followed by
a subject and verb.

In spite of the fact that he worked very hard, he didn't pass the exam.
Despite the fact that he worked very hard, he didn't pass the exam.

23
although / even though

After although and even though, we use a subject and a verb. Even though is slightly stronger and
more emphatic than although.

I enjoyed the course, although I would have liked more grammar practice.
Although we saw each other every day, we didn't really know each other.
Even though she spoke very quietly, he understood every word.
She didn't get the job, even though she had all the necessary qualifications.

though

Though can be used in the same way as although.

Though I wasn't keen on the film, I thought the music was beautiful.

Though can also go at the end of the second phrase. This way of expressing contrasting ideas is
most common in spoken English.

We waited ages for our food. The waiter was really nice, though.

24
+'just', 'yet', 'still' and 'already'
Do you know how to use just, yet, still and already with the present perfect?

Look at these examples to see how just, yet, still and already are used.

I've just seen Sai. He's really enjoying his new job.
We haven't decided what to do yet.
I still haven't called Yumi to see how she is.
I've already had lunch but I'll join you for coffee.

Grammar explanation
We often use just, yet, still and already with the present perfect because they are related to the
present moment. This page focuses on the meaning and use of these words when they are used
with the present perfect.

just

Just used with the present perfect means 'a short time before'.

I've just seen Susan coming out of the cinema.

Mike's just called. Can you ring him back, please?
Have you just taken my pen?!

Just comes between the auxiliary verb (have/has) and the past participle.

yet

Yet used with the present perfect means 'at any time up to now'. We use it to emphasise that we
expect something to happen soon. Yet (in this context) is only used in negative sentences and
questions.

Have you finished your homework yet?

I haven't finished it yet. I'll do it after dinner.
A. Where's Sam? B: He hasn't arrived yet.

Yet comes at the end of the sentence or question.

25
still

Still used with the present perfect means that something hasn't happened. We use it to emphasise
that we expected the thing to happen earlier. Still (in this context) is only used in negative
sentences.

I've been waiting for an hour and the bus still hasn't come.
They promised me that report yesterday but they still haven't finished it.
She still hasn't replied to my email. Maybe she's on holiday.

Still comes between the subject (the bus, they, etc.) and auxiliary verb (haven't/hasn't).

already

Already used with the present perfect means 'before now'. We use it to emphasise that something
happened before something else or earlier than expected.

I've already spent my salary and it's two weeks before payday.
He wanted to see Sudden Risk but I've already seen it.
The train's left already!

Already can come between the auxiliary and the main verb or at the end of the clause.

26
+'so' and 'such'
Do you know how to use the words so and such?

Look at these examples to see how so and such are used.

She's so interesting!
This is such an interesting book.
A new phone costs so much money these days.
Traffic in the city centre is such a nightmare!

Grammar explanation
We can use so and such to intensify adjectives, adverbs and nouns.

Adjectives and adverbs

We can use so with an adjective or adverb to make it stronger.

It's so hot today!

She looks so young in that photo.
He walks so slowly. It's so annoying!

If we are using the comparative form of the adjective or adverb, we use so much to make it
stronger.

They were so much more innocent when they were younger.

I work so much more quickly when I can concentrate.

Nouns

With a noun or adjective + noun, we use such to make it stronger.

You're such an angel!

It's such a hot day today!
They're such lovely trousers. Where did you buy them?

However, when we use much, many, little and few with a noun, we use so to make it stronger.

There are so many people here!

I've had so little time to myself this week.

27
Saying the result

We often use these so and such structures with that and a clause to say what the result is.

It was so cold that the water in the lake froze.

He was such a good teacher that we all passed the exam.
There's so much noise that I can't think!

28
+'used to' + infinitive and 'be' or 'get used to' + '-ing'
Do you know the difference between I used to drive on the left and I'm used to driving on the left?

Look at these examples to see how used to, get used to and be used to are used.

I used to want to be a lawyer but then I realised how hard they work!
How's Boston? Are you used to the cold weather yet?
No matter how many times I fly, I'll never get used to take-off and landing!

Grammar explanation
Used to + infinitive and be/get used to + -ing look similar but they have very different uses.

used to

We use used to + infinitive to talk about a past situation that is no longer true. It tells us that there
was a repeated action or state in the past which has now changed.

She used to be a long-distance runner when she was younger.

I didn't use to sleep very well, but then I started doing yoga and it really helps.
Did you use to come here as a child?

be used to and get used to

Be used to means 'be familiar with' or 'be accustomed to'.

She's used to the city now and doesn't get lost any more.
He wasn't used to walking so much and his legs hurt after the hike.
I'm a teacher so I'm used to speaking in public.

We use get used to to talk about the process of becoming familiar with something.

I'm finding this new job hard but I'm sure I'll get used to it soon.
It took my mother years to get used to living in London after moving from Pakistan.
I'm getting used to the noise now. I found it really stressful when I first moved in.

Be used to and get used to are followed by a noun, pronoun or the -ing form of a verb, and can be
used about the past, present or future.

29
+'wish' and 'if only'
Do you know how to use wish and if only to talk about things you would like to change?

Look at these examples to see how wish and if only are used.

That guy is so annoying! I wish he'd stop talking.

I wish I lived closer to my family.
If only I hadn't lost her phone number. She must think I'm so rude for not calling her.
I wish they wouldn't park their car in front of my house.

Grammar explanation
We use wish and if only to talk about things that we would like to be different in either the present
or the past. If only is usually a bit stronger than wish.

In the present

We can use wish/if only + a past form to talk about a present situation we would like to be
different.

I wish you didn't live so far away.

If only we knew what to do.
He wishes he could afford a holiday.

In the past

We can use wish/if only + a past perfect form to talk about something we would like to change
about the past.

They wish they hadn't eaten so much chocolate. They're feeling very sick now.
If only I'd studied harder when I was at school.

Expressing annoyance

We can use wish + would(n't) to show that we are annoyed with what someone or something does
or doesn't do. We often feel that they are unlikely or unwilling to change.

I wish you wouldn't borrow my clothes without asking.

I wish it would rain. The garden really needs some water.
She wishes he'd work less. They never spend any time together.

30
+Adjectives – gradable and non-gradable
Do you know how to use adjectives in phrases like a bit cold, really cold and absolutely freezing?

Look at these examples to see how gradable and non-gradable adjectives are used.

It's really cold.

It's absolutely freezing.
This exercise is really difficult.
This exercise is completely impossible.

Grammar explanation
Gradable adjectives

Most adjectives are gradable. This means we can have different levels of that quality. For example,
you can be a bit cold, very cold or extremely cold. We can make them weaker or stronger with
modifiers:

She was quite angry when she found out.

The film we saw last night was really funny!
It can be extremely cold in Russia in the winter.

Here is a list of some common gradable adjectives and some modifiers that we can use with them.

Modifiers a little/a bit → pretty/quite → really/very → extremely

angry, big, boring, cheap, cold, expensive, frightening, funny, hot, interesting, old,
Adjectives
pretty, small, tasty, tired, etc.

Non-gradable: absolute adjectives

Some adjectives are non-gradable. For example, something can't be a bit finished or very finished.
You can't be a bit dead or very dead. These adjectives describe absolute qualities. To make
them stronger we have to use modifiers like absolutely, totally or completely:

Thank you, I love it! It's absolutely perfect!

Their farm was totally destroyed by a tornado.
My work is completely finished. Now I can relax.

Here is a list of some common absolute adjectives and some modifiers that we can use with them.

Modifiers absolutely/totally/completely
acceptable, dead, destroyed, finished, free, impossible, necessary, perfect, ruined,
Adjectives
unacceptable, etc.

31
Non-gradable: extreme adjectives

Adjectives like amazing, awful and boiling are also non-gradable. They already contain the idea of
'very' in their definitions. If we want to make extreme adjectives stronger, we have to use
absolutely or really:

Did you see the final match? It was absolutely amazing!

After 32 hours of travelling, they were absolutely exhausted.
My trip home was really awful. First, traffic was really bad, then the car broke down and we had to
walk home in the rain.

Here is a list of some common extreme adjectives and some modifiers that we can use with them.

Modifiers absolutely/really
amazing, ancient, awful, boiling, delicious, enormous, excellent, exhausted,
Adjectives
fascinating, freezing, gorgeous, terrible, terrifying, tiny, etc.

32
+British English and American English
Do you know any differences between British and American English?

Look at these sentences. Do you know which sentences are more typical of British English or
American English?

Shall I open the door for you?

He's taking a shower.
France have won the World Cup.
I'm not hungry. I just ate.

Grammar explanation
The main difference between British English and American English is in pronunciation. Some words
are also different in each variety of English, and there are also a few differences in the way they
use grammar. Here are five of the most common grammatical differences between British and
American English.

1. Present perfect and past simple

In British English, people use the present perfect to speak about a past action that they consider
relevant to the present.

The present perfect can be used in the same way in American English, but people often use the
past simple when they consider the action finished. This is especially common with the adverbs
already, just and yet.

British English American English

He isn't hungry. He has already had lunch. He isn't hungry. He already had lunch.
- Have you done your homework yet? - Did you do your homework yet?
- Yes, I've just finished it. - Yes, I just finished it.

2. got and gotten

In British English, the past participle of the verb get is got.

In American English, people say gotten.

** Note that have got is commonly used in both British and American English to speak about
possession or necessity. have gotten is not correct here.

33
British English American English
You could have got hurt! You could have gotten hurt!
He's got very thin. He's gotten very thin.
She has got serious about her career. She has gotten serious about her career.

BUT: BUT:
Have you got any money? Have you got any money? (NOT Have you gotten ...)
We've got to go now. We've got to go now. (NOT We've gotten to ...)

3. Verb forms with collective nouns

In British English, a singular or plural verb can be used with a noun that refers to a group of people
or things (a collective noun). We use a plural verb when we think of the group as individuals or a
singular verb when we think of the group as a single unit.

In American English, a singular verb is used with collective nouns.

** Note that police is always followed by a plural verb.

British English American English

My family is/are visiting from Pakistan. My family is visiting from Pakistan.
My team is/are winning the match. My team is winning the match.
The crew is/are on the way to the airport. The crew is on the way to the airport.

BUT: BUT:
The police are investigating the crime. The police are investigating the crime.

4. have and take

In British English, the verbs have and take are commonly used with nouns like bath, shower, wash
to speak about washing and with nouns like break, holiday, rest to speak about resting.

In American English, only the verb take (and not the verb have) is used this way.

British English American English

I'm going to have/take a shower. I'm going to take a shower.
Let's have/take a break. Let's take a break.

34
5. shall

In British English, people often use Shall I ...? to offer to do something and/or Shall we ...? to make
a suggestion.

It is very unusual for speakers of American English to use shall. They normally use an alternative
like Should/Can I ...? or Do you want/Would you like ...? or How about ...? instead.

British English American English

It's hot in here. Shall I open the window? It's hot in here. Can I open the window?
Shall we meet in the café at 5? Do you want to meet in the café at 5?
Shall we try that again? How about we try that again?

35
+Capital letters and apostrophes
Do you know how to use capital letters and apostrophes correctly?

Look at these examples to see how capital letters and apostrophes are used.

India celebrates Independence Day on 15 August.

Adam speaks English, Arabic and some Persian.
It's really cold today! They say it'll snow tonight.
Jane's staying at her parents' house this week.

Grammar explanation
Capitalisation

There are lots of times when you need to use capital letters – for example, to start a sentence or
for the pronoun I. Here are some other important rules for using them.

Days, months and holidays

We capitalise days of the week, months and festivals, but not seasons.

His birthday party is on Thursday.

Schools are closed at Christmas.
It rains a lot in April and May, but the summer is very dry.

Names of people and places

We capitalise the names of people and places, including streets, planets, continents and countries.

Bea Jankowski has lived on Church Street in Manchester for 20 years.

The Earth is the third planet from the Sun.
Russia is in both Europe and Asia.

Words that come from the names of places – for example languages, nationalities and adjectives
that refer to people or things from a country, region or city – are capitalised. We also capitalise
nouns and adjectives that come from the names of religions.

Some Canadians speak French.

Londoners eat a lot of Indian food.
Most Muslims fast during the day for Ramadan.

36
Titles and names of institutions

The names of organisations and usually the important words in book and film titles are capitalised.
When a person's job title goes before their name, capitalise both. If the title is separate from their
name, capitalise only their name.

Salome Zourabichvili, the president of Georgia, is visiting President Alvi tomorrow.

The chief executive officer lives in New York.
We are reading War and Peace with Ms Ioana, our teacher.

Apostrophes

We use an apostrophe to show a contraction or possession.

Contractions

We use an apostrophe to show where there are missing letters in contractions.

It's raining. (It's = It is)

Don't worry, it won't rain. (Don't = Do not; won't = will not)
She can't drive because she's broken her leg. (can't = cannot; she's = she has)
I'd like a coffee, please. (I'd = I would)
You'll be fine. (You'll = You will)

** Note that it's is a contraction of it is or it has. its is a possessive form of the pronoun it.

The dog is chasing its tail.

Are you sure it's OK for me to ring you so early?
It's rained a lot this week.

Possession

We also use an apostrophe with the letter s after a noun (normally a person, animal or group) to
show that the noun owns someone or something.

My cat's favourite toy is a small, red ball.

Sadiq's parents live in Liverpool.
South Korea's economy is growing.

Singular or plural

We use 's when the possessor is singular.

Marie's mother is going to Hong Kong.

37
We also use 's when the possessor is a plural noun that does not end in s.

The People's Republic of China

My cousin writes children's books.

When a plural noun ends in s, we put the apostrophe after the s (s').

This is a picture of my parents' house.

Our friend's new car is red. She just got it yesterday.
Our friends' new car is red. They just got it yesterday.

When a singular noun ends in s, we generally use 's.

James's brother-in-law is German.

He has a collection of Dickens's novels.

38
+Conditionals 1
Do you know how to use the zero, first and second conditionals?

Look at these examples to see how zero, first and second conditionals are used.

If you freeze water, it becomes solid.

If it rains tomorrow, I'll take the car.
If I lived closer to the cinema, I would go more often.

Grammar explanation
Conditionals describe the result of a certain condition. The if clause tells you the condition (If you
study hard) and the main clause tells you the result (you will pass your exams). The order of the
clauses does not change the meaning.

If you study hard, you will pass your exams.

You will pass your exams if you study hard.

Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.

Zero conditional

We use the zero conditional to talk about things that are generally true, especially for laws and
rules.

If I drink too much coffee, I can't sleep at night.

Ice melts if you heat it.
When the sun goes down, it gets dark.

The structure is: if/when + present simple >> present simple.

First conditional

We use the first conditional when we talk about future situations we believe are real or possible.

If it doesn't rain tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.

Arsenal will be top of the league if they win.
When I finish work, I'll call you.

39
In first conditional sentences, the structure is usually: if/when + present simple >> will + infinitive.

It is also common to use this structure with unless, as long as, as soon as or in case instead of if.

I'll leave as soon as the babysitter arrives.

I don't want to stay in London unless I get a well-paid job.
I'll give you a key in case I'm not at home.
You can go to the party, as long as you're back by midnight.

Second conditional

The second conditional is used to imagine present or future situations that are impossible or
unlikely in reality.

If we had a garden, we could have a cat.

If I won a lot of money, I'd buy a big house in the country.
I wouldn't worry if I were you.

The structure is usually: if + past simple >> + would + infinitive.

When if is followed by the verb be, it is grammatically correct to say if I were, if he were, if she
were and if it were. However, it is also common to hear these structures with was, especially in the
he/she form.

If I were you, I wouldn't mention it.

If she was prime minister, she would invest more money in schools.
He would travel more if he was younger.

40
+Conditionals 2
Do you know how to use third and mixed conditionals?

Look at these examples to see how third and mixed conditionals are used.

We would have walked to the top of the mountain if the weather hadn't been so bad.
If we'd moved to Scotland when I was a child, I would have a Scottish accent now.
If she was really my friend, she wouldn't have lied to me.

Grammar explanation
Do you know how to use third and mixed conditionals?

Third conditionals and mixed conditionals

Conditionals describe the result of a certain condition. The if clause tells you the condition (If I
hadn't been ill) and the main clause tells you the result (I would have gone to the party). The order
of the clauses does not change the meaning.

If I hadn't been ill, I would have gone to the party.

I would have gone to the party if I hadn't been ill.

Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.

Third conditional

The third conditional is used to imagine a different past. We imagine a change in a past situation
and the different result of that change.

If I had understood the instructions properly, I would have passed the exam.
We wouldn't have got lost if my phone hadn't run out of battery.

In third conditional sentences, the structure is usually: If + past perfect >> would have + past
participle.

41
Mixed conditionals

We can use mixed conditionals when we imagine a past change with a result in the present or a
present change with a result in the past.

1. Past/Present

Here's a sentence imagining how a change in a past situation would have a result in the present.

If I hadn't got the job in Tokyo, I wouldn't be with my current partner.

So the structure is: If + past perfect >> would + infinitive.

2. Present/Past

Here's a sentence imagining how a different situation in the present would mean that the past was
different as well.

It's really important. If it wasn't, I wouldn't have called you on your holiday.

And the structure is: If + past simple >> would have + past participle.

42
+Future continuous and future perfect
Do you know how to use phrases like I'll be studying or I'll have finished?

Look at these examples to see how the future continuous and future perfect are used.

In three years' time, I'll be studying medicine.

In five years' time, I'll have finished studying medicine.

Grammar explanation
Future continuous

We can use the future continuous (will/won't be + -ing form) to talk about future actions that:

• will be in progress at a specific time in the future:

When you come out of school tomorrow, I'll be boarding a plane.

Try to call before 8 o'clock. After that, we'll be watching the match.
You can visit us during the first week of July. I won't be working then.

• we see as new, different or temporary:

Today we're taking the bus but next week we'll be taking the train.
He'll be staying with his parents for several months while his father is in recovery.
Will you be starting work earlier with your new job?

Future perfect

We use the future perfect simple (will/won't have + past participle) to talk about something that
will be completed before a specific time in the future.

The guests are coming at 8 p.m. I'll have finished cooking by then.
On 9 October we'll have been married for 50 years.
Will you have gone to bed when I get back?

We can use phrases like by or by the time (meaning 'at some point before') and in or in a day's
time / in two months' time / in five years' time etc. (meaning 'at the end of this period') to give the
time period in which the action will be completed.

I won't have written all the reports by next week.

By the time we arrive, the kids will have gone to bed.
I'll have finished in an hour and then we can watch a film.
In three years' time, I'll have graduated from university.

43
+Future plans
Do you know how to talk about future plans using will, going to and the present continuous?

Look at these examples to see how will, going to and the present continuous are used.

Oh great! That meeting after work's been cancelled. I'll go to that yoga class instead.
I'm going to try to visit my relatives in Australia this year.
The restaurant is reserved for 8. We're having a drink at Beale's first.

Grammar explanation
We use different verb forms to talk about our plans for the future, depending on what kind of plan
it is: a spontaneous plan, a pre-decided plan or an arrangement.

will

We use will to talk about spontaneous plans decided at the moment of speaking.

Oops, I forgot to phone Mum! I'll do it after dinner.

I can't decide what to wear tonight. I know! I'll wear my green shirt.
There's no milk. I'll buy some when I go to the shops.

going to

We use going to to talk about plans decided before the moment of speaking.

I'm going to phone Mum after dinner. I told her I'd call at 8 o'clock.
I'm going to wear my black dress tonight.
I'm going to go to the supermarket after work. What do we need?

Present continuous

We usually use the present continuous when the plan is an arrangement – already confirmed with
at least one other person and we know the time and place.

I'm meeting Jane at 8 o'clock on Saturday.

We're having a party next Saturday. Would you like to come?

We often use the present continuous to ask about people's future plans.

Are you doing anything interesting this weekend?

44
+Modals – deductions about the past
Do you know how to use modal verbs to show how certain you are about past events?

Look at these examples to see how must, might, may, could, can't and couldn't are used in the
past.

An earthquake? That must have been terrifying!

We don't know for sure that Alex broke the coffee table. It might have been the dog.
How did she fail that exam? She can't have studied very much.

Grammar explanation
We can use modal verbs for deduction – guessing if something is true using the available
information. The modal verb we choose shows how certain we are about the possibility. This page
focuses on making deductions about the past.

must have

We use must have + past participle when we feel sure about what happened.

Who told the newspapers about the prime minister's plans? It must have been someone close to
him.
The thief must have had a key. The door was locked and nothing was broken.
Oh, good! We've got milk. Mo must have bought some yesterday.

might have / may have

We can use might have or may have + past participle when we think it's possible that something
happened.

I think I might have left the air conditioning on. Please can you check?
Police think the suspect may have left the country using a fake passport.

May have is more formal than might have. Could have is also possible in this context but less
common.

can't have / couldn't have

We use can't have and couldn't have + past participle when we think it's not possible that
something happened.

She can't have driven there. Her car keys are still here.
I thought I saw Adnan this morning but it couldn't have been him – he's in Greece this week.

45
+Modals – deductions about the present
Do you know how to use modal verbs to say how certain you are about a possibility?

Look at these examples to see how must, might, may, could and can't can be used.

That must be the main entrance. I can see people queuing to get in.
I've lost my keys. They might be at work or they could be in the car.
You can't be bored already! You've only been here five minutes.

Grammar explanation
We can use modal verbs for deduction – guessing if something is true using the available
information. The modal verb we choose shows how certain we are about the possibility. This page
focuses on making deductions about the present or future.

must

We use must when we feel sure that something is true or it's the only realistic possibility.

This must be her house. I can see her car in the garage.
He must live near here because he always walks to work.
Come inside and get warm. You must be freezing out there!

might, may, could

We use might, may or could to say that we think something is possible but we're not sure.

She's not here yet. She might be stuck in traffic.

He's not answering. He could be in class.
We regret to inform you that some services may be delayed due to the bad weather.

They all have the same meaning, but may is more formal than might and could.

can't

We use can't when we feel sure that something is not possible.

It can't be far now. We've been driving for hours.

She can't know about the complaint. She's promoted him to team leader.
It can't be easy for him, looking after three kids on his own.

Note that these verbs, like all modal verbs, are followed by an infinitive without to.

46
+Modals – permission and obligation
Do you know how to use modal verbs to talk about permission and obligation?

Look at these examples to see how can, can't, must, mustn't, have to and don’t have to are used.

You can put your shoes and coat over there.

You can't leave your bike there.
I must call the electrician and get that light fixed.
You mustn't worry about me. I'll be fine.
You have to have a licence to drive a car.
You don't have to have a licence to cycle on the roads.

Grammar explanation
We often use verbs with modal meanings to talk about permission and obligation.

Permission

can

We often use can to ask for and give permission.

Can I sit here?

You can use my car if you like.
Can I make a suggestion?

could

We also use could to ask for permission (but not to give it). Could is more formal and polite than
can.

Could I ask you something?

Could I interrupt?
Could I borrow your pen for a moment, please?

may

May is the most formal way to ask for and give permission.

May I see your passport, please?

Customers may request a refund within a period of 30 days.
These pages may be photocopied for classroom use.

47
Prohibition

We use can't and mustn't to show that something is prohibited – it is not allowed.

can't

We use can't to talk about something that is against the rules, particularly when we didn't make
the rules.

What does this sign say? Oh, we can't park here.

You can't take photos in the museum. They're really strict about it.
Sorry, we can't sell knives to under-18s.

must not/mustn't

We use must not to talk about what is not permitted. It is common on public signs and notices
informing people of rules and laws.

Visitors must not park in the staff car park.

Baggage must not be left unattended.
Guests must not make noise after 10 p.m.

We use mustn't particularly when the prohibition comes from the speaker.

(Parent to child) You mustn't say things like that to your sister.
(Teacher to student) You mustn't be late to class.
I mustn't let that happen again.

Obligation

We use have to and must to express obligation. There is a slight difference between the way we
use them.

have to

Have to shows us that the obligation comes from outside the speaker.

We have to wear a uniform when we're working in reception.

(Student to teacher) When do we have to hand in our homework?
Al has to work tomorrow so he can't come.

We sometimes call this 'external obligation'.

48
must

Must expresses a strong obligation or necessity. It often shows us that the obligation comes from
the speaker (or the authority that wrote the sentence).

I must phone my dad. It's his birthday today.

(Teacher to student) You must hand in your homework on Tuesday or you will lose ten per cent of
your mark.
(Sign on a plane) Seat belts must be worn by all passengers.

Note that we don't use must to express obligation in the past. We use have to instead.

I had to pay £85 to renew my passport last week.

No obligation

don't have to

We use don’t have to to show that there is no obligation. You can do something if you want to but
it's not compulsory.

You don't have to wear a tie in our office but some people like to dress more formally.
You don't have to go to the bank to do a transfer. You can do it online.
You don't have to come with me, honestly. I'll be fine!

49
+Modifying comparisons
Do you know how to use phrases like much shorter than, almost as fit as and exactly the same as?

Look at these examples to see how comparisons can be modified.

He's much shorter than his brother.

Good-quality socks are almost as important as your running shoes.
Our hotel room was exactly the same as the photos showed.

Grammar explanation
There are several different ways to compare things in English. We can also modify comparisons to
show big or small differences.

Comparing

We can use comparative adjectives to compare different things.

Max is taller than Judy.

You're more patient than I am.
His first book is less interesting than his second.

We can use as … as with an adjective to say that two things are the same, or not as … as to say
that one thing is less than another.

Her hair is as long as mine.

It's not as sunny as yesterday.

We can also use expressions like different from, similar to and the same as.

England is different from the United Kingdom.

His car is similar to mine.
The results from the first test are the same as the results from the second.

Showing big differences

We can use much, so much, a lot, even or far with comparative adjectives.

Sales in July were a lot higher than sales in June.

He was far less experienced than the other applicant.

We can use nowhere near with as … as.

The interview was nowhere near as difficult as the written exam.

50
We can use very, really, completely or totally with different from.

They may be twins, but they're completely different from each other.

Showing small differences

We can use slightly, a little, a bit, a little bit or not much with comparative adjectives.

The number of registrations has been slightly lower than we expected.

Houses in my city are not much more expensive than flats.

We can use almost, nearly, not quite, roughly, more or less or about with as … as and the same as.

She's almost as old as I am.

The figures for May are more or less the same as the figures for June.

We can use very or really with similar to.

My son looks really similar to my father when he was that age.

Showing there is no difference

We can use exactly the same as or just as … as to emphasise that there is no difference.

My grandma's cakes still taste exactly the same as when I was a child!
A new phone can be just as expensive as a new computer these days.

51
+Participle clauses
Do you know how to use participle clauses to say information in a more economical way?

Look at these examples to see how participle clauses are used.

Looked after carefully, these boots will last for many years.
Not wanting to hurt his feelings, I avoided the question.
Having lived through difficult times together, they were very close friends.

Grammar explanation
Participle clauses enable us to say information in a more economical way. They are formed using
present participles (going, reading, seeing, walking, etc.), past participles (gone, read, seen,
walked, etc.) or perfect participles (having gone, having read, having seen, having walked, etc.).

We can use participle clauses when the participle and the verb in the main clause have the same
subject. For example,

Waiting for Ellie, I made some tea. (While I was waiting for Ellie, I made some tea.)

Participle clauses do not have a specific tense. The tense is indicated by the verb in the main
clause.

Participle clauses are mainly used in written texts, particularly in a literary, academic or journalistic
style.

Present participle clauses

Here are some common ways we use present participle clauses. Note that present participles have
a similar meaning to active verbs.

• To give the result of an action

The bomb exploded, destroying the building.
• To give the reason for an action
Knowing she loved reading, Richard bought her a book.
• To talk about an action that happened at the same time as another action
Standing in the queue, I realised I didn't have any money.
• To add information about the subject of the main clause
Starting in the new year, the new policy bans cars in the city centre.

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Past participle clauses

Here are some common ways that we use past participle clauses. Note that past participles
normally have a passive meaning.

• With a similar meaning to an if condition

Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise. (If you use participles in
this way, … )
• To give the reason for an action
Worried by the news, she called the hospital.
• To add information about the subject of the main clause
Filled with pride, he walked towards the stage.

Perfect participle clauses

Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the action in the
main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or passive meaning.

Having got dressed, he slowly went downstairs.

Having finished their training, they will be fully qualified doctors.
Having been made redundant, she started looking for a new job.

Participle clauses after conjunctions and prepositions

It is also common for participle clauses, especially with -ing, to follow conjunctions and
prepositions such as before, after, instead of, on, since, when, while and in spite of.

Before cooking, you should wash your hands.

Instead of complaining about it, they should try doing something positive.
On arriving at the hotel, he went to get changed.
While packing her things, she thought about the last two years.
In spite of having read the instructions twice, I still couldn’t understand how to use it.

53
+Passives
Do you know how to use the passive voice to change the focus of a sentence?

Look at these examples to see how the passive voice is used.

A lot of olive oil is produced in Italy.

This book was written by Angela Davis.
The suspect will be released tomorrow.
This product has not been tested on animals.

Grammar explanation
We use the passive voice to change the focus of the sentence.

My bike was stolen. (passive – focus on my bike)

Someone stole my bike. (active – focus on someone)

We often use the passive:

• when we prefer not to mention who or what does the action (for example, it's not known,
it's obvious or we don't want to say)
• so that we can start a sentence with the most important or most logical information
• in more formal or scientific writing.

How we make the passive

We make the passive using the verb be + past participle. We start the sentence with the object.

Avatar was directed by James Cameron.

↓ ↓ ↓
Object + be + past participle

It is not always necessary to add who or what did the action.

My flight is cancelled.
↓ ↓ ↓
Object + be + past participle

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Only the form of be changes to make the tense. The past participle stays the same. Here are
examples of the passive in its most common tenses.

Tense Example Structure

Present simple Alioli is made from oil, garlic and salt. is/are + past participle
Present is/are being + past
The hall is being painted this week.
continuous participle
Past simple John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. was/were + past participle
was/were being + past
Past continuous The signs were being put up last week.
participle
has/have been + past
Present perfect Oranges have been grown here for centuries.
participle
When he got home, he found that his flat had
Past perfect had been + past participle
been burgled.
Future simple The work will be finished next week. will be + past participle

55
+Past ability
Do you know how to use could, was able to and managed to to talk about past abilities?

Look at these examples to see how could, was able to and managed to are used.

I could play the guitar when I was seven years old.

The police weren't able to catch the speeding car.
The bird managed to escape from its cage and fly away.

Grammar explanation
General ability

We usually use could or couldn't to talk about general abilities in the past.

She could paint before she started school.

I couldn't cook until I went to university.
When I lived next to the pool, I could go swimming every day.

Ability on one occasion – successful

When we talk about achieving something on a specific occasion in the past, we use was/were able
to (= had the ability to) and managed to (= succeeded in doing something difficult).

The burglar was able to get in through the bathroom window.

The burglar managed to get in through the bathroom window even though it was locked.

Could is not usually correct when we're talking about ability at a specific moment in the past.

Ability on one occasion – unsuccessful

When we talk about a specific occasion when someone didn't have the ability to do something, we
can use wasn't/weren't able to, didn't manage to or couldn't.

The speaker wasn't able to attend the conference due to illness.

She couldn't watch the match because she was working.
They worked on it for months but they didn't manage to find a solution.

Note that wasn't/weren't able to is more formal than couldn't, while didn't manage to emphasises
that the thing was difficult to do.

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+Past habits – 'used to', 'would' and the past simple
Do you know how to talk about past habits using used to, would and the past simple?

Look at these examples to see how used to, would and the past simple are used.

They used to live in London.

I didn't use to like olives.
We would always go to the seaside for our holidays.
But one holiday we went to the mountains instead.

Grammar explanation
When we talk about things in the past that are not true any more, we can do it in different ways.

Used to + infinitive

We can use used to to talk about past states that are not true any more.

We used to live in New York when I was a kid.

There didn't use to be a supermarket there. When did it open?
Did you use to have a garden?

We can also use used to to talk about past habits (repeated past actions) that don't happen any
more.

I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.

She used to smoke but she gave up a few years ago.

used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to + -ing, which has a different
meaning. The difference is covered here.

Would

We can use would to talk about repeated past actions that don't happen any more.

Every Saturday I would go on a long bike ride.

My dad would read me amazing stories every night at bedtime.

would for past habits is slightly more formal than used to. It is often used in stories. We don't
normally use the negative or question form of would for past habits. Note that we can't usually
use would to talk about past states.

57
Past simple

We can always use the past simple as an alternative to used to or would to talk about past states
or habits. The main difference is that the past simple doesn't emphasise the repeated or
continuous nature of the action or situation. Also, the past simple doesn't make it so clear that the
thing is no longer true.

We went to the same beach every summer.

We used to go to the same beach every summer.
We would go to the same beach every summer.

If something happened only once, we must use the past simple.

I went to Egypt in 2014.

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+Past perfect
Do you know how to use phrases like They'd finished the project by March or Had you finished
work when I called?

Look at these examples to see how the past perfect is used.

He couldn't make a sandwich because he'd forgotten to buy bread.

The hotel was full, so I was glad that we'd booked in advance.
My new job wasn't exactly what I’d expected.

Grammar explanation
Time up to a point in the past

We use the past perfect simple (had + past participle) to talk about time up to a certain point in
the past.

She'd published her first poem by the time she was eight.
We'd finished all the water before we were halfway up the mountain.
Had the parcel arrived when you called yesterday?

Past perfect for the earlier of two past actions

We can use the past perfect to show the order of two past events. The past perfect shows the
earlier action and the past simple shows the later action.

When the police arrived, the thief had escaped.

It doesn't matter in which order we say the two events. The following sentence has the same
meaning.

The thief had escaped when the police arrived.

Note that if there's only a single event, we don't use the past perfect, even if it happened a long
time ago.

The Romans spoke Latin. (NOT The Romans had spoken Latin.)

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Past perfect with before

We can also use the past perfect followed by before to show that an action was not done or was
incomplete when the past simple action happened.

They left before I'd spoken to them.

Sadly, the author died before he'd finished the series.

Adverbs

We often use the adverbs already (= 'before the specified time'), still (= as previously), just (= 'a
very short time before the specified time'), ever (= 'at any time before the specified time') or never
(= 'at no time before the specified time') with the past perfect.

I called his office but he'd already left.

It still hadn't rained at the beginning of May.
I went to visit her when she'd just moved to Berlin.
It was the most beautiful photo I'd ever seen.
Had you ever visited London when you moved there?
I'd never met anyone from California before I met Jim.

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+Phrasal verbs
Do you know how to use verbs in phrases like pick the kids up, turn the music down and look after
my cat?

Look at these examples to see how phrasal verbs are used.

This is the form. Please can you fill it in?

Why are you bringing that argument up now?
Police are looking into connections between the two crimes.
We need to come up with a solution.

Grammar explanation
Phrasal verbs are very common in English, especially in more informal contexts. They are made up
of a verb and a particle or, sometimes, two particles. The particle often changes the meaning of
the verb.

I called Jen to see how she was. (call = to telephone)

They've called off the meeting. (call off = to cancel)

In terms of word order, there are two main types of phrasal verb: separable and inseparable.

Separable

With separable phrasal verbs, the verb and particle can be apart or together.

They've called the meeting off. OR They've called off the meeting.

However, separable phrasal verbs must be separated when you use a personal pronoun.

The meeting? They've called it off.

Here are some common separable phrasal verbs:

I didn't want to bring the situation up at the meeting.

(bring up = start talking about a particular subject)

Please can you fill this form in?

(fill in = write information in a form or document)

I'll pick you up from the station at 8 p.m.

(pick up = collect someone in a car or other vehicle to take them somewhere)

She turned the job down because she didn't want to move to Glasgow.
(turn down = to not accept an offer)

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Non-separable

Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated.

Who looks after the baby when you're at work?

Even when there is a personal pronoun, the verb and particle remain together.

Who looks after her when you're at work?

Here are some common non-separable phrasal verbs:

I came across your email when I was clearing my inbox.

(come across = to find something by chance)

The caterpillar turned into a beautiful butterfly.

(turn into = become)

It was quite a major operation. It took months to get over it and feel normal again.
(get over = recover from something)

We are aware of the problem and we are looking into it.

(look into = investigate)

Some multi-word verbs are inseparable simply because they don't take an object.

I get up at 7 a.m.

With two particles

Phrasal verbs with two particles are also inseparable. Even if you use a personal pronoun, you put
it after the particles.

Who came up with that idea?

(come up with = think of an idea or plan)

Let's get rid of these old magazines to make more space.

(get rid of = remove or become free of something that you don't want)

I didn't really get on with my stepbrother when I was a teenager.

(get on with = like and be friendly towards someone)

Can you hear that noise all the time? I don't know how you put up with it.
(put up with = tolerate something difficult or annoying)

The concert's on Friday. I'm really looking forward to it.

(look forward to = be happy and excited about something that is going to happen)

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+Present perfect
Do you know how to use phrases like She's called every day this week, I've broken my leg and Have
you ever been to Scotland?

Look at these examples to see how the present perfect is used.

He's been to ten different countries.

I haven't seen her today.
My phone's run out of battery. Can I use yours?
Have you ever dyed your hair a different colour?

Grammar explanation
We use the present perfect simple (have or has + past participle) to talk about past actions or
states which are still connected to the present.

Unfinished time and states

We often use the present perfect to say what we've done in an unfinished time period, such as
today, this week, this year, etc., and with expressions such as so far, until now, before, etc.

They've been on holiday twice this year.

We haven't had a lot of positive feedback so far.
I'm sure I've seen that film before.

We also use it to talk about life experiences, as our life is also an unfinished time period. We often
use never in negative sentences and ever in questions.

I've worked for six different companies.

He's never won a gold medal.
Have you ever been to Australia?

We also use the present perfect to talk about unfinished states, especially with for, since and how
long.

She's wanted to be a police officer since she was a child.

I haven't known him for very long.
How long have you had that phone?

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Finished time and states

If we say when something happened, or we feel that that part of our life is finished, we use the
past simple.

We visited Russia for the first time in 1992.

I went to three different primary schools.
Before she retired, she worked in several different countries.

We also use the past simple for finished states.

We knew all our neighbours when we were children.

I didn't like bananas for a really long time. Now I love them!

Past actions with a result in the present

We can use the present perfect to talk about a past action that has a result in the present.

He's broken his leg so he can't go on holiday.

There's been an accident on the main road, so let's take a different route.
They haven't called me, so I don't think they need me today.

Again, if we say when it happened, we use the past simple.

He broke his leg last week so he can't go on holiday.

However, we often use the present perfect with words like just, recently, already, yet and still.

We've recently started going to the gym.

She's already finished season one and now she's watching season two.
Have you checked your emails yet?

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+Present perfect simple and continuous
Do you know the difference between We've painted the room and We've been painting the room?

Look at these examples to see how the present perfect simple and continuous are used.

We've painted the bathroom.

She's been training for a half-marathon.
I've had three coffees already today!
They've been waiting for hours.

Grammar explanation
We use both the present perfect simple (have or has + past participle) and the present perfect
continuous (have or has + been + -ing form) to talk about past actions or states which are still
connected to the present.

Focusing on result or activity

The present perfect simple usually focuses on the result of the activity in some way, and the
present perfect continuous usually focuses on the activity itself in some way.

Present perfect simple Present perfect continuous

Focuses on the result Focuses on the activity
You've cleaned the bathroom! It looks lovely! I've been gardening. It's so nice out there.
Says 'how many' Says 'how long'
She's read ten books this summer. She's been reading that book all day.
Describes a completed action Describes an activity which may continue
I've written you an email. I've been writing emails.
When we can see evidence of recent activity
The grass looks wet. Has it been raining?
I know, I'm really red. I've been running!

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Ongoing states and actions

We often use for, since and how long with the present perfect simple to talk about ongoing states.

How long have you known each other?

We've known each other since we were at school.

We often use for, since and how long with the present perfect continuous to talk about ongoing
single or repeated actions.

How long have they been playing tennis?

They've been playing tennis for an hour.
They've been playing tennis every Sunday for years.

Sometimes the present perfect continuous can emphasise that a situation is temporary.

I usually go to the gym on the High Street, but it's closed for repairs at the moment so I've been
going to the one in the shopping centre.

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+Question tags
Do you know how to use question tags like is he and didn't you?

Look at these examples to see how question tags are used.

You haven't seen this film, have you?

Your sister lives in Spain, doesn't she?
He can't drive, can he?

Grammar explanation
We can add question tags like isn't it?, can you? or didn't they? to a statement to make it into a
question. Question tags are more common in speaking than writing.

We often use question tags when we expect the listener to agree with our statement. In this case,
when the statement is positive, we use a negative question tag.

She's a doctor, isn't she?

Yesterday was so much fun, wasn't it?

If the statement is negative, we use a positive question tag.

He isn't here, is he?

The trains are never on time, are they?
Nobody has called for me, have they?

If we are sure or almost sure that the listener will confirm that our statement is correct, we say the
question tag with a falling intonation. If we are a bit less sure, we say the question tag with a rising
intonation.

Formation

If there is an auxiliary verb in the statement, we use it to form the question tag.

I don't need to finish this today, do I?

James is working on that, isn't he?
Your parents have retired, haven't they?
The phone didn't ring, did it?
It was raining that day, wasn't it?
Your mum hadn't met him before, had she?

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Sometimes there is no auxiliary verb already in the statement. For example, when:

... the verb in the statement is present simple or past simple and is positive. Here we use don't,
doesn't or didn't:

Jenni eats cheese, doesn't she?

I said that already, didn't I?

... the verb in the statement is to be in the present simple or past simple. In this case we use to be
to make the question tag:

The bus stop's over there, isn't it?

None of those customers were happy, were they?

... the verb in the statement is a modal verb. Here we use the modal verb to make the question
tag:

They could hear me, couldn't they?

You won't tell anyone, will you?

If the main verb or auxiliary verb in the statement is am, the positive question tag is am I? but the
negative question tag is usually aren't I?:

I'm never on time, am I?

I'm going to get an email with the details, aren't I?

68
+Reflexive pronouns
Do you know how to use reflexive pronouns like myself, yourself or themselves?

Look at these examples to see how reflexive pronouns are used.

She looked at herself in the mirror.

I'm trying to teach myself Italian with an app.
Our children walk to school by themselves.

Grammar explanation
Reflexive pronouns are words like myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and
themselves. They refer back to a person or thing.

We often use reflexive pronouns when the subject and the object of a verb are the same.

I cut myself when I was making dinner last night.

I hope you enjoy yourselves at the party tonight!
My phone isn't working properly. It turns itself off for no reason.
We need to believe in ourselves more.

Adding emphasis

We can add a reflexive pronoun for emphasis when it's unusual or different.

He wants to pass his driving test so that he can drive himself to work.
She broke her arm, so she couldn't wash herself very easily.

We can use reflexive pronouns to emphasise that someone does it personally, not anybody else.

The door was definitely locked. I locked it myself.

Are you redecorating your flat yourselves?

We can also use a reflexive pronoun together with the noun it refers to in order to emphasise it.

We talked to the manager herself, and she agreed to give us our money back.
Parents themselves need to take more responsibility for their children's learning.

By + reflexive pronoun

We can use by + reflexive pronoun to mean alone.

He usually goes on holiday by himself.

Do you enjoy being by yourself?

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Reciprocal pronouns

Notice the difference between plural reflexive pronouns and reciprocal pronouns (each other, one
another).

They're buying themselves a new television.

They're buying each other small gifts.
We looked at ourselves in the mirror.
We looked at each other in surprise.

With reciprocal pronouns (e.g. each other), each person does the action to the other
person/people but not to themselves.

70
+Relative clauses – defining relative clauses
Do you know how to define who or what you are talking about using relative clauses?

Look at these examples to see how defining relative clauses are used.

Are you the one who sent me the email?

The phone which has the most features is also the most expensive.
This is the video that I wanted to show you.
The person they spoke to was really helpful.

Grammar explanation
Relative clauses give us information about the person or thing mentioned.

Defining relative clauses give us essential information – information that tells us who or what we
are talking about.

The woman who lives next door works in a bank.

These are the flights that have been cancelled.

We usually use a relative pronoun or adverb to start a defining relative clause: who, which, that,
when, where or whose.

who/that

We can use who or that to talk about people. that is more common and a bit more informal.

She's the woman who cuts my hair.

He's the man that I met at the conference.

which/that

We can use which or that to talk about things. that is more common and a bit more informal.

There was a one-year guarantee which came with the TV.

The laptop that I bought last week has started making a strange noise!

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Other pronouns

when can refer to a time.

Summer is the season when I'm happiest.

where can refer to a place.

That's the stadium where Real Madrid play.

whose refers to the person that something belongs to.

He's a musician whose albums have sold millions.

Omitting the relative pronoun

Sometimes we can leave out the relative pronoun. For example, we can usually leave out who,
which or that if it is followed by a subject.

The assistant [that] we met was really kind.

(we = subject, can omit that)

We can't usually leave it out if it is followed by a verb.

The assistant that helped us was really kind.

(helped = verb, can't omit that)

72
+Relative clauses – non-defining relative clauses
Do you know how to give extra information about someone or something using relative clauses?

Look at these examples to see how non-defining relative clauses are used.

Jack, who's retired now, spends a lot of time with his grandchildren.
We want to see the new Tom Carter film, which was released on Friday.
My sister, whose dog I'm looking after, is visiting a friend in Australia.

Grammar explanation
Relative clauses give us information about the person or thing mentioned.

Non-defining relative clauses give us extra information about someone or something. It isn't
essential for understanding who or what we are talking about.

My grandfather, who's 87, goes swimming every day.

The house, which was built in 1883, has just been opened to the public.
The award was given to Sara, whose short story impressed the judges.

We always use a relative pronoun or adverb to start a non-defining relative clause: who, which,
whose, when or where (but not that). We also use commas to separate the clause from the rest of
the sentence.

who, which and whose

We can use who to talk about people, which to talk about things and whose to refer to the person
or thing that something belongs to.

Yesterday I met my new boss, who was very nice.

The house, which is very big, is also very cold!
My next-door neighbour, whose children go to school with ours, has just bought a new car.
After the port there is a row of fishermen's houses, whose lights can be seen from across the bay.

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Places and times

We can use which with a preposition to talk about places and times. In these cases it's more
common to use where or when instead of which and the preposition.

City Park, which we used to go to, has been closed down.

City Park, where we used to go, has been closed down.
December, which Christmas is celebrated in, is a summer month for the southern hemisphere.
December, when Christmas is celebrated, is a summer month for the southern hemisphere.

However, when we use which without a preposition, we can't use where or when.

Centre Park, which we love, is always really busy on Saturdays.

February, which is my favourite month, lasts 29 days this year.

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+Reported speech 1 – statements
Do you know how to report what somebody else said?

Look at these examples to see how we can tell someone what another person said.

direct speech: 'I love the Toy Story films,' she said.
indirect speech: She said she loved the Toy Story films.

direct speech: 'I worked as a waiter before becoming a chef,' he said.

indirect speech: He said he'd worked as a waiter before becoming a chef.

direct speech: 'I'll phone you tomorrow,' he said.

indirect speech: He said he'd phone me the next day.

Grammar explanation
Reported speech is when we tell someone what another person said. To do this, we can use direct
speech or indirect speech.

direct speech: 'I work in a bank,' said Daniel.

indirect speech: Daniel said that he worked in a bank.

In indirect speech, we often use a tense which is 'further back' in the past (e.g. worked) than the
tense originally used (e.g. work). This is called 'backshift'. We also may need to change other
words that were used, for example pronouns.

Present simple, present continuous and present perfect

When we backshift, present simple changes to past simple, present continuous changes to past
continuous and present perfect changes to past perfect.

'I travel a lot in my job.'

• Jamila said that she travelled a lot in her job.

'The baby's sleeping!'

• He told me the baby was sleeping.

'I've hurt my leg.'

• She said she'd hurt her leg.

75
Past simple and past continuous

When we backshift, past simple usually changes to past perfect simple, and past continuous
usually changes to past perfect continuous.

'We lived in China for five years.'

• She told me they'd lived in China for five years.

'It was raining all day.'

• He told me it had been raining all day.

Past perfect

The past perfect doesn't change.

'I'd tried everything without success, but this new medicine is great.'

• He said he'd tried everything without success, but the new medicine was great.

No backshift

If what the speaker has said is still true or relevant, it's not always necessary to change the tense.
This might happen when the speaker has used a present tense.

'I go to the gym next to your house.'

• Jenny told me that she goes to the gym next to my house. I'm thinking about going
with her.

'I'm working in Italy for the next six months.'

• He told me he's working in Italy for the next six months. Maybe I should visit him!

'I've broken my arm!'

• She said she's broken her arm, so she won't be at work this week.

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Pronouns, demonstratives and adverbs of time and place

Pronouns also usually change in indirect speech.

'I enjoy working in my garden,' said Bob.

• Bob said that he enjoyed working in his garden.

'We played tennis for our school,' said Alina.

• Alina told me they'd played tennis for their school.

However, if you are the person or one of the people who spoke, then the pronouns don't change.

'I'm working on my thesis,' I said.

• I told her that I was working on my thesis.

'We want our jobs back!' we said.

• We said that we wanted our jobs back.

We also change demonstratives and adverbs of time and place if they are no longer accurate.

'This is my house.'

• He said this was his house. [You are currently in front of the house.]
• He said that was his house. [You are not currently in front of the house.]

'We like it here.'

• She told me they like it here. [You are currently in the place they like.]
• She told me they like it there. [You are not in the place they like.]

'I'm planning to do it today.'

• She told me she's planning to do it today. [It is currently still the same day.]
• She told me she was planning to do it that day. [It is not the same day any more.]

In the same way, these changes to those, now changes to then, yesterday changes to the day
before, tomorrow changes to the next/following day and ago changes to before.

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+Reported speech 2 – questions
Do you know how to report a question that somebody asked?

Look at these examples to see how we can tell someone what another person asked.

direct speech: 'Do you work from home?' he said.

indirect speech: He asked me if I worked from home.

direct speech: 'Who did you see?' she asked.

indirect speech: She asked me who I'd seen.

direct speech: 'Could you write that down for me?' she asked.
indirect speech: She asked me to write it down.

Grammar explanation
A reported question is when we tell someone what another person asked. To do this, we can use
direct speech or indirect speech.

direct speech: 'Do you like working in sales?' he asked.

indirect speech: He asked me if I liked working in sales.

In indirect speech, we change the question structure (e.g. Do you like) to a statement structure
(e.g. I like).

We also often make changes to the tenses and other words in the same way as for reported
statements (e.g. have done → had done, today → that day). You can learn about these changes on
the Reported speech 1 – statements page.

Yes/no questions

In yes/no questions, we use if or whether to report the question. If is more common.

'Are you going to the Helsinki conference?'

• He asked me if I was going to the Helsinki conference.

'Have you finished the project yet?'

• She asked us whether we'd finished the project yet.

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Questions with a question word

In what, where, why, who, when or how questions, we use the question word to report the
question.

'What time does the train leave?'

• He asked me what time the train left.

'Where did he go?'

• She asked where he went.

Reporting verbs

The most common reporting verb for questions is ask, but we can also use verbs like enquire, want
to know or wonder.

'Did you bring your passports?'

• She wanted to know if they'd brought their passports.

'When could you get this done by?'

• He wondered when we could get it done by.

Offers, requests and suggestions

If the question is making an offer, request or suggestion, we can use a specific verb pattern
instead, for example offer + infinitive, ask + infinitive or suggest + ing.

'Would you like me to help you?'

• He offered to help me.

'Can you hold this for me, please?'

• She asked me to hold it.

'Why don't we check with Joel?'

• She suggested checking with Joel.

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+Reported speech 3 – reporting verbs
Do you know how to tell someone what another person said using reporting verbs?

Look at these examples to see how reporting verbs are used.

direct speech: 'You should come, it's going to be a lot of fun,' she said.
indirect speech: She persuaded me to come.

direct speech: 'Wait here,' he said.

indirect speech: He told us to wait there.

direct speech: 'It wasn't me who finished the coffee,' he said.

indirect speech: He denied finishing the coffee.

Grammar explanation
When we tell someone what another person said, we often use the verbs say, tell or ask. These
are called 'reporting verbs'. However, we can also use other reporting verbs. Many reporting verbs
can be followed by another verb in either an infinitive or an -ing form.

Reporting verb + infinitive

Verbs like advise, agree, challenge, claim, decide, demand, encourage, invite, offer, persuade,
promise, refuse and remind can follow an infinitive pattern.

'Let's see. I'll have the risotto, please.'

• He decided to have the risotto.

'I'll do the report by Friday, for sure.'

• She promised to do the report by Friday.

'It's not a good idea to write your passwords down.'

• They advised us not to write our passwords down.

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We can also use an infinitive to report imperatives, with a reporting verb like tell, order, instruct,
direct or warn.

'Please wait for me in reception.'

• The guide told us to wait for her in reception.

'Don't go in there!'

• The police officer warned us not to go in there.

Reporting verb + -ing form

Verbs like admit, apologise for, complain about, deny, insist on, mention and suggest can follow an
-ing form pattern.

'I broke the window.'

• She admitted breaking the window.

'I'm really sorry I didn't get back to you sooner.'

• He apologised for not getting back to me sooner.

'Let's take a break.'

• She suggested taking a break.

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+Stative verbs
Do you know how to use stative verbs like think, love, smell and have?

Look at these examples to see how stative verbs are used.

I think that's a good idea.

I love this song!
That coffee smells good.
Do you have a pen?

Grammar explanation
Stative verbs describe a state rather than an action. They aren't usually used in the present
continuous form.

I don't know the answer. I'm not knowing the answer.

She really likes you. She's really liking you.
He seems happy at the moment. He's seeming happy at the moment.

Stative verbs often relate to:

• thoughts and opinions: agree, believe, doubt, guess, imagine, know, mean, recognise,
remember, suspect, think, understand
• feelings and emotions: dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish
• senses and perceptions: appear, be, feel, hear, look, see, seem, smell, taste
• possession and measurement: belong, have, measure, own, possess, weigh.

Verbs that are sometimes stative

A number of verbs can refer to states or actions, depending on the context.

I think it's a good idea.

Wait a moment! I'm thinking.

The first sentence expresses an opinion. It is a mental state, so we use present simple. In the
second example the speaker is actively processing thoughts about something. It is an action in
progress, so we use present continuous.

Some other examples are:

have

I have an old car. (state – possession)

I'm having a quick break. (action – having a break is an activity)

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see

Do you see any problems with that? (state – opinion)

We're seeing Tadanari tomorrow afternoon. (action – we're meeting him)

be

He's so interesting! (state – his permanent quality)

He's being very unhelpful. (action – he is temporarily behaving this way)

taste

This coffee tastes delicious. (state – our perception of the coffee)

Look! The chef is tasting the soup. (action – tasting the soup is an activity)

Other verbs like this include: agree, appear, doubt, feel, guess, hear, imagine, look, measure,
remember, smell, weigh, wish.

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+The future – degrees of certainty
Do you know how to use phrases like will definitely, be likely to and probably won't to say how
sure you are about future events?

Look at these examples to see how we can express different degrees of certainty about the future.

I'll definitely be at the meeting, don't worry.

She's likely to say yes if you ask nicely.
It probably won't rain later according to the weather forecast.

Grammar explanation
We can show how certain we are about the future by using modal verbs and other expressions.

Modal verbs and adverbs

We can use modal verbs (such as will, might, may or could) and adverbs (such as probably and
definitely) to show how sure we are.

Very sure

People will definitely work from home more in the future.

Robots definitely won't replace all human jobs.

Sure

Donna will really enjoy this film.

You won't regret it.

Almost sure

We'll probably finish the project by tomorrow.

He probably won't have enough time.

Not sure

I might go to the party, but I'm not sure yet.

He hasn't studied much, so he might not pass the exam.

When you are not sure, we can also use may, could and may not. However, we don't usually use
could not to talk about the future.

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Other expressions

We can also use other expressions such as be bound to and be likely to, or verbs such as think and
doubt.

Very sure

He's bound to feel nervous before his driving test.

She's certain to get that job!
He's certain that he'll get here on time.
There's no chance that we'll ever win the lottery.
There's no way that my boss will give me the day off.

Sure

I'm sure that you'll do well in the interview.

Are you sure that you won't be available?

Almost sure

The government's likely to call an election soon.

Ali's unlikely to be invited to the party.
There's a good chance that it'll snow this week.
There's not much chance that I'll finish this essay tonight.
She thinks he'll be able to help.
I don't think we'll have petrol-based cars in the future.
I doubt they'll have any trouble finding the address.
What do you expect mobile phones will be like in ten years' time?

Not sure

There's a chance that she'll be back at work tomorrow.

There's a chance that he might come and visit us next week.
I think we might see more of these problems in the next few years.
I'm not sure that I'll be able to finish this pizza!

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+Verbs and prepositions
Do you know how to use the prepositions for, from, in, of, on, to and with after verbs?

Look at these examples to see how prepositions are used after verbs.

Can you wait for me to finish my lunch?

I'm relying on my co-worker to answer all my emails while I'm on holiday.
Sun cream protects you from getting burnt.

Grammar explanation
When a verb is part of a longer sentence, it is often followed by a specific preposition.

I agree with Mike.

She listens to the radio a lot.
He thanked me for the flowers.

There are no grammatical rules to help you know which preposition is used with which verb, so it's
a good idea to try to learn them together. To help you do this, write new vocabulary in your
notebook in a sentence or phrase. Here are some common verbs for each preposition.

Verbs with for

They're waiting for a bus.

He apologised for being late.
I applied for the job but I didn't get it.
How do you ask for a coffee in Polish?
I can't go out tonight because I have to prepare for my interview tomorrow.

Verbs with from

This spray should protect you from mosquitoes.

Has he recovered from the accident yet?
She won an award because she saved someone from drowning.
I suffer from allergies.

Verbs with in

She doesn't believe in coincidences.

Our company specialises in computer software.
You have to work hard if you want to succeed in life.

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Verbs with of

I don't approve of hunting animals for their fur.

Our dog died of old age.
This shampoo smells of bananas.

Verbs with on

Their decision will depend on the test results.

The film is based on the novel by Boris Pasternak.
If you make so much noise, I can't concentrate on my work.
Come on! We're relying on you!
We don't agree on anything but we're still good friends.

Verbs with to

What kind of music do you like listening to?

Can I introduce you to my grandfather?
Please refer to the notes at the end for more information.
Nobody responded to my complaint.
She apologised to me the next day.

Verbs with with

I agree with everything you've said.

My assistant will provide you with more information if you need it.
We're finding it difficult to deal with the stress.

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+Verbs followed by '-ing' or by 'to' + infinitive 2
Do you know the difference between stop doing something and stop to do something?

Look at these examples to see how these verb patterns work.

The bus stopped picking up the children.

The bus stopped to pick up the children.

I want to try studying with a friend to see if it helps us stay more motivated.
I'm trying to study but it's impossible with all this noise.

Grammar explanation
Some verbs have a different meaning depending on whether they are followed by an -ing form or
to + infinitive.

stop

Stop + -ing means the action is not happening any more.

I've stopped buying the newspaper because now I read the news online.

Stop + to + infinitive means that someone or something stops an activity so that they can do
something else.

He stopped the video to ask the students some questions.

try

Try + -ing means that you are trying something as an experiment, especially as a possible solution
to a problem, to see if it works or not.

Have you tried turning the computer off and on again?

Try + to + infinitive means that something is difficult but you are making an effort to do it.

I'm trying to learn Japanese but it's very difficult.

remember/forget

Remember + -ing and forget + -ing refer to having (or not having) a memory of something in the
past.

I remember watching this film before.

I'll never forget meeting you for the first time in this café.

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Remember + to + infinitive and forget + to + infinitive refer to recalling (or not recalling) that there
is something we need to do before we do it.

Please remember to buy some milk on the way home.

He forgot to lock the door when he went out.

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