PREPOSITIONS

-a word that establishes a relationship between a noun or pronoun (its

object) and another word in the sentence.
-it typically indicates location , direction, time , manner , or other
relationships.
-used to provide additional information about the relationship between
elements in a sentence.
-are essential component of grammatically correct and meaningful
sentences , as they provide crucial information about the spatial ,
temporal , or logical relationships between words.
Prepositions of Time – used to indicate when an action or event takes place.

 In – used to express a general period of time , such as months , years, seasons , or parts
of the day.
It indicates a broader timeframe without specifying an exact point in time.

 On – used to indicate specific days , dates , or specific parts of the day

- It specifies a particular point in time.
 At – used to denote a specific time or a precise point in time
- Typically used with specific hours , times or moments.
 During – used to indicate a period of time when something happens or occurs.
- it signifies that an action or event happened within the specified time frame.
 For – used to express the duration or length of time that something lasts or continues.
 Since – used to indicate the starting point of an action or event , emphasizing the
duration from a specific past moment until the present.
 Until / Till – used to express the end or completion of an action or event.
- they indicate the time up to which something continues or lasts.

Prepositions of Place – used to indicate the location or position of something or someone in

relation to another object or a specific place.

 In – used to indicate being enclosed or surrounded by something.

- it suggests being inside an area , container , or a general location.
 On – used to indicate a surface or a point of contact.
- it suggests something resting or positioned directly above or in contact with
something else.
 At – used to indicate a specific location or a particular point.
- it suggests being present or located at a particular place.
 Under – used to indicate a position below or beneath something.
- it suggests being covered or concealed by something.
  Behind – used to indicate a position at the back of rear of something.
- it suggests being located or situated on the opposite side from the front.
 Next to – used to indicate being in close proximity or adjacency to something or
someone.
- it suggests being immediately beside or adjacent to a particular object or person.
 Between – used to indicate a position or location in the middle or amid two or more
objects , people or places.
Preposition of Direction – used to indicate the movement or direction of something or
someone. They help us describe the way in which objects or individuals move or are oriented in
relation to other objects or places.

 To – used to indicate movement toward a specific destination or recipient.

- it suggest a direction / goal.
 From – used to indicate movement or origin starting at a particular point or place.
- it suggests a starting point or source.
 Into- used to indicate a movement or entry into something or a specific place.
- it suggests a movement from outside to the inside.
 Onto – used to indicate movement or placement onto a surface or object.
- it suggests a movement or transfer from one location to another.
 Out of – used to indicate movement or emergence from a particular place or object.
- it suggests moving away or exiting.
 Towards – used to indicate movement or orientation in the direction of something or
someone.
- it suggests a movement or direction aimed at reaching a specific destination or
target.
 Away from – used to indicate movement or distance from a particular point or place.
- it suggests moving in the opposite direction or getting further from something.

Preposition of Agents or Things – used to indicate the means or instrument by which an action
is performed or the source from which something originates.
- they help us describe the role or involvement of a particular agent or thing in
relation to an action or event.
 By – used to indicate the agent or person who performs an action or the authorship of a
creative work.
- it suggests the means or instrument through which something is done or
created.
 With – used to indicate the tool , instrument , or means used to perform an action.
- it suggests the presence or use of a particular object or thing in accomplishing
the action.
  Through – used to indicate the medium, method or process by which something is done
or accomplished.
- it suggests the channel or pathway of action or achievement.
 From – used to indicate the origin, source , or provide of something.
- it suggests the point of origin or entity from which something is derived or
received.
 Via – used to indicate the route or means of communication or medium used to transmit
or exchange information or objects.
 Using – used to indicate the tool, equipment, or method employed in performing an
action.
- it suggests the utilization or application of a particular resource or technique.

Phrasal Prepositions – are combinations of two or more words that function as a single
preposition, expressing a specific relationship between objects or ideas.
- they are commonly used in English to provide more nuanced and precise
descriptions.
 In front of – indicates the position or location of one object or person relative to another.
- it suggests that something or someone is positioned ahead or facing another
object or person.
 On top of – indicates that one object or person is directly above another.
- it suggests a position of physical contact or close proximity.
 Next to – indicates close proximity or adjacency.
- it suggests that something or someone is immediately beside or adjacent to
another object or person.
 In between – indicates being located or situated amid or between two or more objects
or people.
- it suggests a position in the middle or between two reference points.
 Due to – indicates the cause or reason for something.
- it suggests that something is the result of or attributed to a particular factor or
circumstance.
 Regardless of – indicates not being affected or influenced by a particular factor or
condition.
- it suggests proceeding or acting without consideration of the specified factor.

ADVERBS – part of speech that modify a verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or whole sentences.
- they provide additional information about how , when , where , why, or what
extent an action or state occurs.

Classes of Adverbs
 1. Adverbs of Time – they indicate when an action occurs.
2. Adverbs of Place – they indicate where an action occurs.
3. Adverbs of Manner – they describe how an action is performed.
4. Adverbs of Frequency – they indicate how often an action occurs.
5. Adverbs of Degree – they modify adjectives or other adverbs to indicate the
intensity or extent of an action.
6. Adverbs of Reason – they express the reason or cause for an action.
7. Adverbs of Purpose – they indicate the intention or purpose behind an
action.
8. Adverbs of Affirmation/ Negation – they express agreement or disagreement
with a statement.
Comparison of Adverbs
• Comparative – used to compare two actions or qualities.
• Superlative – used to compare more than two actions or qualities.
Special Uses , Suggestions , and Cautions
• Adverbs of Frequency Placement
Generally , adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb.
However , they can also be placed at the beginning or end of a sentence for emphasis.
• Adverbs and Adjectives
Adjectives modify nouns , while adverbs modify verbs , adjectives, or other adverbs.
• Avoid Overuse – using too many adverbs can make writing or speech weak.
• Be mindful of adverb placement – adverb placement can affect the meaning of a sentence.
Pay attention to where the adverb is positioned to ensure clarity and convey the intended
message.
•Use Adverbs to Add Description – adverbs can enhance your writing by providing additional
details and painting a more vivid picture of the action or situation.

MODALS
- also known as modal verbs or moral auxiliaries
- a specific category of auxiliary verbs
- they are used to express various aspects such as ability, possibility, necessity ,
permission, and obligation.
 - they do not function as main verbs but are used alongside the base form of a
main verb to convey specific meanings.
 Can
- expresses ability, possibility, or permission.
 Could
- indicates past ability, possibility, or polite requests.
 May
- indicates permission, possibility, or uncertainty.
 Might
- expresses possibility, uncertainty, or a more tentative form of “may”.
 Must
- conveys necessity, obligation, or strong deduction.
 Shall
- used to make suggestions, give commands , or indicate future actions.
 Should
- expresses advice , recommendation , or expectation.
 Will
- indicates future actions, willingness, or promises.
 Would
- used to express politeness , requests or hypothetical situations.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Transitive Verbs
- action verbs that require a direct object to complete their meaning.
- the action of the verb is transferred from the subject to the object.

Intransitive Verbs
- do not require a direct object to complete their meaning.
- they express an action or state that does not transfer to an object
 It’s important to note that some verbs can function as both transitive and intransitive,
depending on how they are used in a sentence.

THE STEM AND INFLECTED FORMS OF IRREGULAR VERBS AND LINKING VERBS
Irregular Verbs – have different forms in their base (infinitive) , past tense , and past participle
compared to regular verbs.
- the stem of an irregular verb is part that remains constant across different
forms , while the inflected forms vary.
Linking Verbs – also known as copular verbs
 - do not have significant change in their inflected forms
- they connect the subject of a sentence to a subject complement (noun ,
adjective, or pronoun) that describes or identifies the subject.
TAKE NOTE: Irregular verbs have different stem and inflected forms , whereas linking verbs have
a consistent stem with minimal changes in their inflected forms.

GERUNDS
- a verb form that functions as a noun.
- it is created by adding the suffix “-ing” to the base form of a verb.
- used to talk about actions or activities as nouns.
- they can function as subjects , objects , or complements in a sentence.
- commonly used in various contexts, such as describing hobbies , interests , or
actions.
CONJUGATION
- refers to the process of inflecting a verb to indicate its various forms based on
tense, mood , aspect , person , and number.
- it involves altering the verb’s form to match the subject and express different
grammatical nuances.
- used to create grammatically correct sentences and convey specific information
about the subject , time of action , and the speaker’s attitude or intention.
- by conjugating a verb we can indicate whether an action is happening in the
present, past , or future , as well as express different moods and aspects.
 Conjugation allows us to express the appropriate form of the verb according to the
subject , tense , mood and other grammatical factors, enabling clear and accurate
communication in different contexts.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERB
- are the forms that are used to construct all the tenses, moods , and voices of that
verb.
 Base form (infinitive)
- it is the simplest form of the verb , usually preceded by “to” in English.
 Simple past
- it represents the past tense form of the verb
- used to indicate an action that occurred and was completed in the past.
 Past Participle
- it is a verb form typically used to construct the perfect tenses and passive voice.
 - in regular verbs, the past participle is often formed by adding “-ed” or “-d” to the
base form.
 Present Participle (Gerund/Participle)
- it is a verb form that ends in “-ing” and can function as both a verb and a noun.
As a verb , it represents an ongoing action in the present or future, and as noun , it
functions as a gerund.

By using principal parts of the verb, we can construct various tenses , voices, and moods
in a sentence , allowing us to express actions or states in different time frames and
convey nuanced meanings.

VERBS
- -a verb is part of speech that expresses an action , occurrence , or state of being.
- it is a word that conveys an action or a state of being
- it is typically used to describe what the subject of a sentence is doing or what is
happening to it.
- essential component of a sentence , and they are often considered the backbone
of communication in any language.
CLASSES OF VEBS
• Action verbs – express physical or mental actions.
• Linking verbs – connects the subject of a sentence to a word or phrase that describes or
identifies it.
• Modal verbs – express modality, such as ability, permission, obligation, or possibility.
• Auxiliary verbs – used with other verbs to form different tenses or moods.
• Transitive verbs – require a direct object to complete their meaning.
• Intransitive verbs – do not require a direct object to complete their meaning.
• Phrasal verbs – consist of a main verb and one or more particles.
PROPERTIES OF VERBS
•Tense – verbs can be used to indicate the time of an action or event, using tenses such as
present, past and future.
• Aspect – verbs can also convey the aspect of an action or event , indicating whether it is
ongoing , completed , or repeated.
•Mood – verbs can express different moods
Indicative – stating a fact
Imperative – giving a command
Subjunctive – expressing a hypothetical or uncertain situation.
•Voice – verbs can be used in active or passive voice
- indicating whether the subject of the sentence is performing the action or
receiving it.
• Transitivity – verbs can be transitive or intransitive
- indicating whether they require an object to complete their meaning or not.

• Infinitive and gerunds – indicating that they are functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb
within a sentence.

VOICE – the voice of a verb indicates whether the subject of a sentence is performing the action
or receiving it.
2 main voices
• Active voice – the subject of the sentence is performing the action.
• Passive voice – the subject of the sentence is receiving the action.
- the sentence is structured so that the object of the active sentences becomes the
subject of the passive sentence.
- is often used when the focus is on the receiver of the action rather than the
performer , or when the performer is unknown or unimportant.
- can sometimes create ambiguity or awkward phrasing, and it should be used
judiciously.
INFINITIVES
- a verb form that is not conjugated to reflect tense , mood , or person.
- usually preceded by the word *to” and is often used as noun, adjective, or
adverb in a sentence
- can be used in a variety of ways in English , including as the subject of a
sentence , the object of a verb or preposition, or as complement to a subject or
object.
TENSES OF THE VERB
- there are 12 complete tenses for each verb
 - these are formed by combining the basic tenses.

1. Simple present – expresses a general truth or habitual action

2. Present continuous – expresses an action happening at the moment of speaking.
3. Present perfect – expresses an action that began in the past and continues up to
the present.
4. Present perfect continuous – expresses an action that began in the past,
continues up to the present , and may continue in the future
5. Simple past – expresses a completed action in the past.
6. Past continuous – expresses an ongoing action in the past.
7. Past perfect – expresses a past action completed before another past action.
8. Past perfect continuous – expresses an ongoing past action completed before
another past action.
9. Simple future – expresses a future action
10. Future continuous – expresses an ongoing future action.
11. Future perfect – expresses a future action completed before another future
action.
12. Future perfect continuous – expresses a future action that will continue up to a
certain point in the future.
PERSON (VERB)
- refers to the grammatical category of a verb that indicates who is performing the
action.
 First person – refers to the speaker or the writer.
- the subject is the person speaking or writing.
 Second person – refers to the person being spoken to or written to.
- the subject is the person being addressed.
 Third person – refers to a person or thing that is being talked about.
- the subject is the person or thing being discussed.

VERB : NUMBER
- verbs are classified as singular or plural , depending on the number of the subject
they are referring to.
- A singular verb is used with a singular subject, which refers to one person , place
or thing or idea. A plural verb is used with a plural subject , which refers to more
than one person, place , thing or idea.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

 refers to the agreement in number between a subject and its verb.

RULE #1 - Singular subjects take singular verbs , while plural subjects take plural verbs.
Examples : The cat (singular subject) is sleeping.
The cats (plural subject) are sleeping.
RULE #2 – when a compound subject is joined by “and’ , it usually takes a plural verb.
Examples : John and Mary are going to the party.
Bread and butter is my favorite breakfast.
(the compound subjects refer to a single entity)
RULE #3- when a compound subject is joined by “or” or “nor”, the verb agrees with the subject
closer to it.
Examples : Either the cat or the dogs are making noise.
Either the students or the teacher is responsible for submitting the assignment.
RULE #4 – indefinite pronouns such as “everyone” , “someone,” or “anyone,” are treated as
singular subjects.
Examples : Everyone wants to be successful.
Someone needs to clean up the mess.
RULE #5 – words that come between the subject and the verb do not affect the agreement.
Examples : The book on the table belongs to me.
The book , along with the novels is on the shelf.
RULE #6 – collective nouns can be either singular or plural , depending on the context. If the
group is acting as a unit , use a singular verb. If the individuals within the group are acting
separately, use a plural verb.
Examples : The team is winning the game. ( acting as a unit)
The team are arguing among themselves. (acting separately)
RULE #7 – In sentences that begin with “there” or “here” , the subject follows the verb. The
verb agrees with the actual subject.
Examples: There are many books on the shelf.
RULE #8 – title names , and phrases representing a single entity take a singular verb.
Examples: “The Lord of the Rings” is a popular book.
“The Statue of Liberty” is a symbol of freedom.
RULE #9 – when using “either/or” or “neither/nor”, the verb agrees with the subject closer to it.
Examples: Neither the cat nor the dogs want to go outside.
Either John or his friends are responsible for the mess.
RULE #10 – subjects that expresses a portion or part of something can take a singular or plural
verb , depending on the context.
Examples: Two-thirds of the cake has been eaten. (singular)
Two-thirds of the students are present. (plural)