Counting

In daily lives, many a times one needs to find out the number of all possible outcomes for a
series of events. For instance, in how many ways can a panel of judges comprising of 6 men and
4 women be chosen from among 50 men and 38 women? How many different 10 letter numbers
can be generated such that the first five letters are capital alphabets, the next four are digits and
the last is again a capital letter. For solving these problems, mathematical theory of counting are
used. Counting mainly encompasses fundamental counting rule, the permutation rule, and the
combination rule.

The Rules of Sum and Product

The Rule of Sum and Rule of Product are used to decompose difficult counting problems into

simple problems.

 The Rule of Sum − If a sequence of tasks T1,T2,…,Tm can be done in w1,w2,…

wm ways respectively (the condition is that no tasks can be performed simultaneously),
then the number of ways to do one of these tasks is w1+w2+⋯+wm. If we consider two
tasks A and B which are disjoint (i.e. A∩B=∅), then mathematically |A∪B|=|A|+|B|
 The Rule of Product − If a sequence of tasks T1,T2,…,Tm can be done in w1,w2,…
wm ways respectively and every task arrives after the occurrence of the previous task,
then there are w1×w2×⋯×wm ways to perform the tasks. Mathematically, if a task B
arrives after a task A, then |A×B|=|A|×|B| Example

Question − A boy lives at X and wants to go to School at Z. From his home X he has to first
reach Y and then Y to Z. He may go X to Y by either 3 bus routes or 2 train routes. From there,
he can either choose 4 bus routes or 5 train routes to reach Z. How many ways are there to go
from X to Z?

Solution − From X to Y, he can go in 3+2=5 ways (Rule of Sum). Thereafter, he can go Y to Z

in 4+5=9 ways (Rule of Sum). Hence from X to Z he can go in 5×9=45 ways (Rule of Product).

Permutations
A permutation is an arrangement of some elements in which order matters. In other words a
Permutation is an ordered Combination of elements.

Examples

 From a set S ={x, y, z} by taking two at a time, all permutations are −

xy,yx,xz,zx,yz,zy We have to form a permutation of three digit numbers from a set of

numbers S={1,2,3} . Different three digit numbers will be formed when we arrange the
digits. The permutation will be = 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321

Number of Permutations

The number of permutations of ‘n’ different things taken ‘r’ at a time is denoted by nPr
nPr=n!/(n−r)!

where n!=1.2.3.…(n−1).n

Some Problems

Problem 1 − From a bunch of 6 different cards, how many ways we can permute it?

Solution − As we are taking 6 cards at a time from a deck of 6 cards, the permutation will
be 6P6=6!=720

Problem 2 − In how many ways can the letters of the word 'READER' be arranged?

Solution − There are 6 letters word (2 E, 1 A, 1D and 2R.) in the word 'READER'.

The permutation will be =6!/ [(2!)(1!)(1!)(2!)]=180.

Problem 3 − In how ways can the letters of the word 'ORANGE' be arranged so that the
consonants occupy only the even positions?

Solution − There are 3 vowels and 3 consonants in the word 'ORANGE'. Number of ways of
arranging the consonants among themselves =3P3=3!=6 The remaining 3 vacant places will be
filled up by 3 vowels in 3P3=3!=6 ways. Hence, the total number of permutation is 6×6=36

Combinations
A combination is selection of some given elements in which order does not matter.

The number of all combinations of n things, taken r at a time is −

nCr=n!/r!(n−r)!

Problem 1

Find the number of subsets of the set {1,2,3,4,5,6}having 3 elements.

Solution

The cardinality of the set is 6 and we have to choose 3 elements from the set. Here, the ordering
does not matter. Hence, the number of subsets will be 6C3=20

Problem 2

There are 6 men and 5 women in a room. In how many ways we can choose 3 men and 2
women from the room?

Solution

The number of ways to choose 3 men from 6 men is 6C3 and the number of ways to choose 2
women from 5 women is 5C2
Hence, the total number of ways is − 6C3×5C2=20×10=200

Problem 3

How many ways can you choose 3 distinct groups of 3 students from total 9 students?

Solution

Let us number the groups as 1, 2 and 3

For choosing 3 students for 1st group, the number of ways − 9C3 The number of ways for
choosing 3 students for 2nd group after choosing 1st group − 6C3
The number of ways for choosing 3 students for 3 rd group after choosing 1st and 2nd group − 3C3
Hence, the total number of ways =9C3×6C3×3C3=84×20×1=1680

The Inclusion-Exclusion principle

The Inclusion-exclusion principle computes the cardinal number of the union of multiple non-
disjoint sets. For two sets A and B, the principle states −

|A∪B|=|A|+|B|−|A∩B|

For three sets A, B and C, the principle states −

|A∪B∪C|=|A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|A∩C|−|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C|

Problem 1

How many integers from 1 to 50 are multiples of 2 or 3 but not both?

Solution

From 1 to 100, there are 50/2=25numbers which are multiples of 2.

There are 50/3=16 numbers which are multiples of 3.
There are 50/6=8 numbers which are multiples of both 2 and 3.
So, |A|=25, |B|=16 and |A∩B|=8.
|A∪B|=|A|+|B|−|A∩B|=25+16−8=33

Problem 2

In a group of 50 students 24 like cold drinks and 36 like hot drinks and each student likes at
least one of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?

Solution

Let X be the set of students who like cold drinks and Y be the set of people who like hot drinks.

So, |X∪Y|=50, |X|=24,  |Y|=36

|X∩Y|=|X|+|Y|−|X∪Y|=24+36−50=60−50=10

Hence, there are 10 students who like both tea and coffee.

Probability
Closely related to the concepts of counting is Probability. We often try to guess the results of
games of chance, like card games, slot machines, and lotteries; i.e. we try to find the likelihood
or probability that a particular result with be obtained.

Probability can be conceptualized as finding the chance of occurrence of an event.

Mathematically, it is the study of random processes and their outcomes. The laws of probability
have a wide applicability in a variety of fields like genetics, weather forecasting, opinion polls,
stock markets etc.

Basic Concepts

Probability theory was invented in the 17th century by two French mathematicians, Blaise
Pascal and Pierre de Fermat, who were dealing with mathematical problems regarding of
chance.

Before proceeding to details of probability, let us get the concept of some definitions.

Random Experiment − An experiment in which all possible outcomes are known and the exact
output cannot be predicted in advance is called a random experiment. Tossing a fair coin is an
example of random experiment.

Sample Space − When we perform an experiment, then the set S of all possible outcomes is
called the sample space. If we toss a coin, the sample space S={H,T}

Event − Any subset of a sample space is called an event. After tossing a coin, getting Head on
the top is an event.

The word "probability" means the chance of occurrence of a particular event. The best we can
say is how likely they are to happen, using the idea of probability.

Probabilityofoccurenceofanevent=TotalnumberoffavourableoutcomeTotalnumberofOutcomesPr
obabilityofoccurenceofanevent=TotalnumberoffavourableoutcomeTotalnumberofOutcomes

As the occurrence of any event varies between 0% and 100%, the probability varies between 0
and 1.

Steps to find the probability

Step 1 − Calculate all possible outcomes of the experiment.

Step 2 − Calculate the number of favorable outcomes of the experiment.

Step 3 − Apply the corresponding probability formula.

Tossing a Coin
If a coin is tossed, there are two possible outcomes − Heads (H) or Tails (T)

So, Total number of outcomes = 2

Hence, the probability of getting a Head (H) on top is 1/2 and the probability of getting a
Tails (T) on top is 1/2

Throwing a Dice
When a dice is thrown, six possible outcomes can be on the top − 1,2,3,4,5,6

The probability of any one of the numbers is 1/6

The probability of getting even numbers is 3/6 = 1/2

The probability of getting odd numbers is 3/6 = 1/2

Taking Cards From a Deck

From a deck of 52 cards, if one card is picked find the probability of an ace being drawn and
also find the probability of a diamond being drawn.

Total number of possible outcomes − 52

Outcomes of being an ace − 4

Probability of being an ace = 4/52 = 1/13

Probability of being a diamond = 13/52 = 1/4

Probability Axioms
 The probability of an event always varies from 0 to 1. [0≤P(x)≤1]\
 For an impossible event the probability is 0 and for a certain event the probability is 1.
Conditional Probability
The conditional probability of an event B is the probability that the event will occur given an
event A has already occurred. This is written as P(B|A) Mathematically − P(B|
A)=P(A∩B)/P(A)
If event A and B are mutually exclusive, then the conditional probability of event B after the
event A will be the probability of event B that is P(B)

Problem 1

In a country 50% of all teenagers own a cycle and 30% of all teenagers own a bike and cycle.
What is the probability that a teenager owns bike given that the teenager owns a cycle?

Solution

Let us assume A is the event of teenagers owning only a cycle and B is the event of teenagers
owning only a bike.

So, P(A)=50/100=0.5 and P(A∩B)=30/100=0.3from the given problem.

P(B|A)=P(A∩B)/P(A)=0.3/0.5=0.6

Hence, the probability that a teenager owns bike given that the teenager owns a cycle is 60%.

Problem 2

In a class, 50% of all students play cricket and 25% of all students play cricket and volleyball.
What is the probability that a student plays volleyball given that the student plays cricket?

Solution

Let us assume A is the event of students playing only cricket and B is the event of students
playing only volleyball.

So, P(A)=50/100=0.5 and P(A∩B)=25/100=0.25 from the given problem.

P⟮B|A⟯=P⟮A∩B⟯/P⟮A⟯=0.25/0.5=0.5

Hence, the probability that a student plays volleyball given that the student plays cricket is 50%.

Problem 3
Six good laptops and three defective laptops are mixed up. To find the defective laptops all of
them are tested one-by-one at random. What is the probability to find both of the defective
laptops in the first two pick?

Solution

Let A be the event that we find a defective laptop in the first test and B be the event that we find
a defective laptop in the second test.

Hence, P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B|A)=3/9×2/8=1/12