Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

DESIGN OF
MACHINE ELEMENTS II
Teaching material

Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam (MSc Mechanical Design)

Lecturer, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Jimma Institute of Technology
Jimma University
August, 2017

1 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
PREFACE
This material is written to cover the curriculum in the subject “Design of Machine
elements 2 (MENG 3132)” at Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Jimma Institute of
Technology, Jimma University.

The material gives an in-depth idea of design of Machine Elements. It covers all the
topics in the curriculum with having simplicity in presentation, easily to understandable,
with a variety of solved problems that provides for self-learning and thought provoking
exercise problems for practice by the reader.

The material is presented in 6 chapters covering the topics including Introduction to

machine design principles, design of shafts, design of gear drives (spur gear drives,
helical gear drives, bevel gear drives and worm gear drives), design of chain (roller
chains) and belt drives (V-belt drives), design of anti-friction roller bearings and design of
clutches and brakes

The salient features of this material are:

 Concise and compact, covering all major topics

 Varity of problems and solved exercises in each portion
 Relevant standard tables and graphs are provided
 Step by step design approaches are included

Addisu Kidanemariam, MSc, Mechanical Design

Lecturer, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
E-mail: [email protected]
29th of Aug. 2017

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

CONTENTS
COURSE OBJECTIVES & COMPETENCES TO BE ACQUIRED .......................... 1
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................ 2
Introduction to mechanical design ....................................................................................... 2
1. Classifications of Machine Design .............................................................................. 2
2. General Considerations in Machine Design ................................................................ 3
3. General Procedure in Machine Design ........................................................................ 4
4. Engineering materials and their properties .................................................................. 5
4.1. Classification of Engineering Materials ................................................................ 6
4.2. Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes .................................................. 6
4.3. Mechanical Properties of Metals ........................................................................... 6
4.4. Manufacturing considerations in Machine design ................................................ 8
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 9
DESIGN OF SHAFTS ....................................................................................................... 10
Instructional Objectives: .................................................................................................... 10
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 10
1. Material for Shafts ..................................................................................................... 10
2. Shaft design ................................................................................................................ 11
2.1. Fundamental Relationships ................................................................................. 11
2.1.1. Design of Shafts for Static Loading ............................................................. 11
2.1.2. Shaft Design for Fatigue loading ................................................................. 14
2.1.3. Shaft Design Procedure................................................................................ 21
2.1.4. Critical Speed of a Rotating Shaft ............................................................... 25
2.1.5. Torsion of Non-Circular Shafts ................................................................... 27
3. Keys ........................................................................................................................... 30
3.1. Key and Keyway Design ..................................................................................... 30
3.1.1. Crushing Failure........................................................................................... 30
3.1.2. Shearing Failure ........................................................................................... 31
4. Couplings ................................................................................................................... 31
Problems ........................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................... 37
DESIGN OF GEAR DRIVES ........................................................................................... 39
Instructional Objectives: .................................................................................................... 39
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 39
1. Spur Gears .................................................................................................................. 41
1.1. Terminologies...................................................................................................... 41
1.2. Meshing Geometry .............................................................................................. 42
1.3. Interference in spur gears .................................................................................... 43

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
1.4. Power and Gear Ratio ......................................................................................... 43
1.5. Contact Ratio ....................................................................................................... 43
1.6. Speed Ratio ......................................................................................................... 44
1.7. Power Transmitting Force ................................................................................... 44
1.8. Dynamic Forces between Gear Teeth ................................................................. 44
1.9. Allowable Stresses on spur Gear Teeth............................................................... 46
1.9.1. Bending Stresses .......................................................................................... 46
1.9.2. Contact Stresses ........................................................................................... 48
2. Bevel Gears ................................................................................................................ 50
2.1. Terminology and Geometry ................................................................................ 50
2.2. Allowable Stresses on Gear Teeth .......................................................................... 51
2.2.1. Bending Capacity ......................................................................................... 51
2.2.2. Contact Capacity .......................................................................................... 51
2.3. Horsepower Capacity .......................................................................................... 51
2.4. Loads on Bearings by Bevel Gears ..................................................................... 51
3. Helical gear ................................................................................................................ 52
3.1. Terminology and Geometry ................................................................................ 52
3.2. Pitches of Helical Gear Teeth.............................................................................. 53
3.3. Equivalent Teeth ................................................................................................. 53
3.4. Interference in helical gears ................................................................................ 54
3.5. Contact Ratios ..................................................................................................... 54
3.6. Tooth Forces ........................................................................................................ 54
3.7. Loads on Bearings by Helical Gears ................................................................... 54
3.8. Horsepower Capacity of Helical Gears ............................................................... 55
4. Worm Gears ............................................................................................................... 58
4.1. Terminology and Geometry ................................................................................ 58
4.2. Horsepower Capacity of Worm Gears ................................................................ 59
4.2.1. Horsepower Capacity worm gears ............................................................... 59
4.2.2. Thermal Horsepower Capacity .................................................................... 60
4.3. Loads on Bearings by Worm Gears .................................................................... 62
Problems ........................................................................................................................... 64
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................ 69
DESIGN OF BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES ..................................................................... 71
Instructional Objectives ..................................................................................................... 71
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 71
1. Belt drives .................................................................................................................. 71
2. V-belts ........................................................................................................................ 72
3. Geometrical analysis of V-belts ................................................................................. 73

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
3.1. Centre Distance (C) for V-belt Drive .................................................................. 73
3.2. Tensions inside a V-belt ...................................................................................... 74
3.2.1. Relation of Tight-side and Slack-side Tensions .......................................... 74
3.2.2. Force Analysis of V-Belt ............................................................................. 76
3.2.3. Determination of V-belts Life L .................................................................. 77
3.2.4. V-belt design steps ....................................................................................... 78
4. Power transmitting chains .......................................................................................... 85
5. Bush Roller Chains .................................................................................................... 87
5.1. Horsepower Capacity of Roller Chains ............................................................... 87
5.2. Roller chain guidelines and design considerations ............................................. 88
5.3. Chain Calculations .............................................................................................. 89
5.3.1. Centre distance ............................................................................................. 89
5.3.2. Chain Length ................................................................................................ 89
5.3.3. Chain Speed ................................................................................................. 90
5.3.3. Chain Power Rating ..................................................................................... 90
5.3.4. Chain dimensions ......................................................................................... 90
5.3.5. Sprocket dimensions .................................................................................... 91
5.3.6. Roller chain design steps ............................................................................. 91
6. Wire Ropes................................................................................................................. 95
6.1. Stresses and Loading ........................................................................................... 95
6.1.1. Bending Stress ............................................................................................. 95
6.1.2. Fatigue.......................................................................................................... 95
Problems ........................................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 98
DESIGN OF ANTI-FRICTION ROLLER BEARINGS ................................................. 100
instructional objectives .................................................................................................... 100
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 100
1. Rolling Contact Bearings ......................................................................................... 100
2. Rolling Contact Bearings Designation and Selection .............................................. 103
2.1. Design Load ...................................................................................................... 104
2.2. Bearing Loading ................................................................................................ 104
2.2.1. Equivalent Static Loading .......................................................................... 104
2.2.2. Equivalent Dynamic Load ......................................................................... 105
2.3. Load ratings and bearing life ............................................................................. 106
2.3.1. Load ratings ............................................................................................... 106
2.3.2. Bearing life................................................................................................. 107
2.3.3. Life parameters .......................................................................................... 108
2.3.4. Bearing reliability .......................................................................................... 109

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
3. Selection of Bearings for Variable Loadings ........................................................... 110
4. Bearing life suggestion ............................................................................................ 111
5. Lubrication of Anti-Friction Bearings ..................................................................... 113
6. Fluid film bearings ................................................................................................... 114
7. Materials for bearing ................................................................................................ 117
Problems ......................................................................................................................... 118
CHAPTER SIX .............................................................................................................. 120
DESIGN OF CLUTCHES AND BRAKES ..................................................................... 122
Instructional objectives .................................................................................................... 122
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 122
1. Clutches.................................................................................................................... 122
1.1. Disk Clutch........................................................................................................ 122
1.1.1. Constant Wear Theory ............................................................................... 123
1.1.2. Constant Pressure Theory .......................................................................... 123
1.2. Cone Clutch ....................................................................................................... 125
1.3. Friction Media ................................................................................................... 126
2. Brakes ...................................................................................................................... 127
2.1. Disk Brake ......................................................................................................... 127
2.2. Block Brake with Short Shoe ............................................................................ 127
2.2.1. Energized or de-energized ......................................................................... 128
2.2.2. Self-Locking .............................................................................................. 128
2.2.3. Braking Torque .......................................................................................... 128
2.2.4. Power and Heat generated ......................................................................... 130
2.3. Block Brake with Long Shoe (Internal shoe brake) .......................................... 132
2.3.1 Lining Pressure Distribution ...................................................................... 132
2.3.2. Friction Torque .......................................................................................... 133
2.3.3. Braking torque ........................................................................................... 133
2.4. External shoe brakes (De-Energizing shoe brakes)........................................... 133
2.5. Band Brakes ...................................................................................................... 134
Problems ......................................................................................................................... 137
List of Sources ................................................................................................................ 141
Appendex 1 ..................................................................................................................... 142
Unit conversion ............................................................................................................ 142
Appendex 2 ..................................................................................................................... 143
Physical and mechanical properties of materials ......................................................... 143
1. Melting (or softening) temperature, Tm ......................................................... 143
2. Density, ρ ....................................................................................................... 143
3. Young’s modulus, E ...................................................................................... 144

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
4. Yield stress, σy, and tensile strength, σts ...................................................... 144
5. Fracture toughness (plane strain), kic ............................................................ 144
6. Environmental resistance ............................................................................... 145
Appendex 3 ..................................................................................................................... 146
Applications of engineering materials ......................................................................... 146
Appendix 4 ...................................................................................................................... 148
Standard Parallel Keyway and Key Sizes .................................................................... 148
Appendix 5 ...................................................................................................................... 149
Standard sizes of Rolling Contact Bearings................................................................. 149
5.1. Standard sizes of Deep groove ball bearings ................................................ 149
5.2. Standard sizes of Angular contact ball bearings ........................................... 151
5.3. Standard sizes of Tapered roller bearings .................................................... 153
5.4. Standard sizes of Thrust ball bearings .......................................................... 155

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

COURSE OBJECTIVES & COMPETENCES TO BE ACQUIRED

Course Objectives
The course enables students understand basic principles of mechanical design in the
design and analysis of typical machine elements with particular focus on: Shafts, keys,
Couplings, Belt Drives, Chain Drives, Gear Drives, Bearings, Clutches and Brakes.
The objective of the course is to develop mechanical engineering students the knowledge
and skills required:

 To apply engineering analysis principles and methods to the proper analysis of a

variety of common mechanical system components.
 To design these mechanical system components so as to perform safely their
intended functions in harmony with other components of the system.
 To use information resources to identify appropriate and elegant component
solutions for mechanical system design problems, locate sources for these
components, and understand the analysis and design methods for these
components.
 To conform to the right codes and standard.

Outcomes:
Students will be able:
 To apply different failure theories to the design of shafts subject to combined
static, dynamic and fatigue loads.
 To analyze and design gears with respect to tooth bending strength and surface
contact strength specifications.
 To compute equivalent radial loads for rolling contact bearings and select
appropriate bearings for the application using available catalog data.
 To analyze and design various types of brakes and clutches.
 To analyze and design power transmission belts and chains by following certain
design steps

Contribution of the course to the program outcomes:

 Knowledge of linear algebra, depth in physics, advanced calculus, differential

equations, and engineering sciences along with the ability to apply these towards
solutions of elementary mechanical engineering problems.
 Ability to formulate and solve open-ended problems.
 Ability to design mechanical and thermal systems, components, or processes to
meet desired needs by combining course work and independent study.
 Ability to use modern computer tools in mechanical engineering.
 Ability to function professionally and with ethical responsibility as an individual
and on multidisciplinary teams.
 Ability to communicate in written, oral, and graphical forms.

Contribution of the course to meeting the professional component:

This course builds on engineering sciences to provide the students with fundamental
knowledge of machine elements used in design, and thus contributes to mechanical
design practice. Design considerations acting as realistic constraints are also given such
as cost, safety, reliability, environment, manufacturability, aesthetics, noise, and ethics.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL DESIGN
The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving
the existing ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall
cost of production and operation. The process of design is a long and time consuming
one. From the study of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived. The idea is then
studied keeping in mind its commercial success and given shape and form in the form of
drawings. In the preparation of these drawings, care must be taken of the availability of
resources in money, in men and in materials required for the successful completion of the
new idea into an actual reality. In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have
a good knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics,
Strength of Materials, and Design of machine elements, Theory of Machines, Workshop
Processes and Engineering Drawing.

1. CLASSIFICATIONS OF MACHINE DESIGN

The machine design may be classified as follows:

1. Adaptive design. In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation
of existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and
can be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only
makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training
and design ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by
adopting a new material or different method of manufacture. In this case, though
the designer starts from the existing design, but the final product may differ quite
markedly from the original product.
3. New design. This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and
creative thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a
sufficiently high order can take up the work of a new design. The designs,
depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows:
a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae
of principle of mechanics.
b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae
based on the practice and past experience.
c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production
aspects to manufacture an y machine component in the industry.
d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function
under the specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the
undesirable effects.
e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a
motor car.
f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system
like piston, crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and
optimization of a design.
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE DESIGN

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component:

1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load. The load, on a machine component,
may act in several ways due to which the internal stresses are set up. The various
types of load and stresses are discussed in Strength of materials Course.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine. The successful operation of any
machine depends largely upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will give
the motion required.
The motion of the parts may be:
(a) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating
motions.
(b) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple
harmonic.
(c) Constant velocity.
(d) Constant or variable acceleration.
3. Selection of materials. It is essential that a designer should have a thorough
knowledge of the properties of the materials and their behavior under working
conditions. Some of the important characteristics of materials are: strength, durability,
flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and corrosion, ability to cast, welded or
hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc. The various types of engineering
materials and their properties are discussed later.
4. Form and size of the parts. The form and size are based on judgment. The smallest
practicable cross-section may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced
in the designed cross-section are reasonably safe. In order to design any machine part
for form and size, it is necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain. It is
also important to anticipate any suddenly applied or impact load which may cause
failure.
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication. There is always a loss of power due to
frictional resistance and it should be noted that the friction of starting is higher than
that of running friction. It is, therefore, essential that a careful attention must be given
to the matter of lubrication of all surfaces which move in contact with others, whether
in rotating, sliding, or rolling bearings.
6. Convenient and economical features. In designing, the operating features of the
machine should be carefully studied. The starting, controlling and stopping levers
should be located on the basis of convenient handling. The adjustment for wear must
be provided employing the various take up devices and arranging them so that the
alignment of parts is preserved. If parts are to be changed for different products or
replaced on account of wear or breakage, easy access should be provided and the
necessity of removing other parts to accomplish this should be avoided if possible.
The economical operation of a machine which is to be used for production or for the
processing of material should be studied, in order to learn whether it has the
maximum capacity consistent with the production of good work.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
7. Use of standard parts. The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because
the cost of standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to
order. The standard or stock parts should be used whenever possible; parts for which
patterns are already in existence such as gears, pulleys and bearings and parts which
may be selected from regular shop stock such as screws, nuts and pins. Bolts and
studs should be as few as possible to avoid the delay caused by changing drills,
reamers and taps and also to decrease the number of wrenches required.
8. Safety of operation. Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which
are speeded up to insure production at a maximum rate. Therefore, any moving part of
a machine which is within the zone of a worker is considered an accident hazard and
may be the cause of an injury. It is, therefore, necessary that a designer should always
provide safety devices for the safety of the operator. The safety appliances should in
no way interfere with operation of the machine.
9. Workshop facilities. A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of this
employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some
other workshop. It is sometimes necessary to plan and supervise the workshop
operations and to draft methods for casting, handling and machining special parts.
10. Number of machines to be manufactured. The number of articles or machines to be
manufactured affects the design in a number of ways. The engineering and shop costs
which are called fixed charges or overhead expenses are distributed over the number
of articles to be manufactured. If only a few articles are to be made, extra expenses
are not justified unless the machine is large or of some special design. An order
calling for small number of the product will not permit any undue expense in the
workshop processes, so that the designer should restrict his specification to standard
parts as much as possible.
11. Cost of construction. The cost of construction of an article is the most important
consideration involved in design. In some cases, it is quite possible that the high cost
of an article may immediately bar it from further considerations. If an article has been
invented and tests of handmade samples have shown that it has commercial value, it is
then possible to justify the expenditure of a considerable sum of money in the design
and development of automatic machines to produce the article, especially if it can be
sold in large numbers. The aim of design engineer under all conditions should be to
reduce the manufacturing cost to the minimum.
12. Assembling. Every machine must be assembled as a unit before it can
function. Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be
transported to their place of service. The final location of any machine is important
and the design engineer must anticipate the exact location and the local facilities for
erection.
3. GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MACHINE DESIGN

In designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be attempted
in several ways. However, the general procedure to solve a design problem is as follows:

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Recognition of
need

Synthesis
(Mechanism)

Analysis of forces

Material selection

Design of elements

Modification

Detail drawing

Manufacturing

Figure 1: General Procedure in Machine Design

1. Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of the problem,

indicating the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the will give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the
energy transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses).
Find the size of each member of the machine by considering the force acting on the
member and the permissible stresses for the material used. It should be kept in mind
that each member should not deflect or deform than the permissible limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and
judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by
consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of
the machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
8. Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.
Note: When there are number of components in the market having the same qualities
of efficiency, durability and cost, then the customer will naturally attract towards the
most appealing product. The aesthetic and ergonomics are very important features
which give grace and shine to the product and dominates the market.

4. ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design
engineer. The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
suitable for the conditions of operation. In addition to this, a design engineer must be
familiar with the effects which the manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on
the properties of the materials. Now, we shall discuss the commonly used engineering
materials and their properties in Machine Design.

4.1. Classification of Engineering Materials

The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc.
2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
3. The metals may be further classified as:
(a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals.
The *ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as
cast iron, wrought iron and steel.

4.2. Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult
problems for the designer. The best material is one which serves the desired objective at
the minimum cost. The following factors should be considered while selecting the
material:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.
The important properties, which determine the utility of the material, are physical,
chemical and mechanical properties. We shall now discuss the physical and mechanical
properties of the material in the following articles.

4.3. Mechanical Properties of Metals

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of
the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the
metal include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability,
toughness, resilience, creep and hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as
follows:
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally
applied force is called stress.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The
modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for
materials used in tools and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than
rubber.
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under
load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in
stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic.
The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and
percentage reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering
practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminum, nickel,
zinc, tin and lead.
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when
subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron
is a brittle material.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering
practice (in order of diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron,
copper and aluminum.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads
like hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is
measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed
after being stressed up to the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts
subjected to shock and impact loads.
9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with
which a material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a
number of ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or
thrust required to remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to
remove a unit volume of the material. It may be noted that brass can be easily
machined than steel.
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and
impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume
within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This
property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and
turbines.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below
the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The
failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine
and of microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting
rods, springs, gears, etc.
13. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to
cut another metal. The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are
dependent on the method of making the test. The hardness of a metal may be
determined by the following tests:
a) Brinell hardness test,
b) Rockwell hardness test,

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
d) Shore scleroscope.

4.4. Manufacturing considerations in Machine design

The knowledge of manufacturing processes is of great importance for a design engineer.
The following are the various manufacturing processes used in Mechanical Engineering.
1. Primary shaping processes. The processes used for the preliminary shaping of the
machine component are known as primary shaping processes. The common
operations used for this process are casting, forging, extruding, rolling, drawing,
bending, shearing, spinning, powder metal forming, squeezing, etc.
2. Machining processes. The processes used for giving final shape to the machine
component, according to planned dimensions are known as machining processes.
The common operations used for this process are turning, planning, shaping,
drilling, boring, reaming, sawing, broaching, milling, grinding, hobbing, etc.
3. Surface finishing processes. The processes used to provide a good surface finish
for the machine component are known as surface finishing processes. The
common operations used for this process are polishing, buffing, honing, lapping,
abrasive belt grinding, barrel tumbling, electroplating, super finishing,
sherardizing, etc.
4. Joining processes. The processes used for joining machine components are
known as joining processes. The common operations used for this process are
welding, riveting, soldering, brazing, screw fastening, pressing, sintering, etc.
5. Processes effecting change in properties. These processes are used to impart
certain specific properties to the machine components so as to make them suitable
for particular operations or uses. Such processes are heat treatment, hot-working,
cold-working and shot peening.

Other considerations in Machine design are:

1. Workshop facilities,
2. Number of machines to be manufactured,
3. Cost of construction and
4. Assembling.

8 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

CHAPTER TWO
DESIGN OF
SHAFTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS

9 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
DESIGN OF SHAFTS

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
 Understand what a shaft is and its main purpose in mechanical design.
 Understand standard shaft sizes
 Understand standard shaft materials
 Estimate the critical speed of a rotating shaft
 Fully design a shaft based on static and fatigue strength

INTRODUCTION
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
another. Shafts are usually solid in cross section and round in shape but sometimes to
minimize the weight of the shaft hollow cross section shafts and square shapes shafts can
be used.
The primary function of shafts is to transmit power through the components mounted on
them, such as gears, pulleys, couplings, wheels, flywheels etc….One or any
combination of bending, torsion, tension and compression may be loaded on the shaft. In
addition, the loading(s) may be static or fluctuating. To design shafts and couplings we
must address strength, rigidity and control vibration.

1. MATERIAL FOR SHAFTS

The ferrous, non-ferrous materials and non-metals are used as shaft material depending
on the application. Some of the common ferrous materials used for shaft are discussed
below.
- Hot-rolled plain carbon steel
These materials are least expensive. Since it is hot rolled, scaling is always present on the
surface and machining is required to make the surface smooth.
- Cold-drawn plain carbon/alloy composition
Since it is cold drawn it has got its inherent characteristics of smooth bright finish.
Amount of machining therefore is minimal. Better yield strength is also obtained. This is
widely used for general purpose transmission shaft.
- Alloy steels
Alloy steel as one can understand is a mixture of various elements with the parent steel to
improve certain physical properties. To retain the total advantage of alloying materials
one requires heat treatment of the machine components after it has been manufactured.
Nickel, chromium and vanadium are some of the common alloying materials. However,
alloy steel is expensive.
These materials are used for relatively severe service conditions. When the situation
demands great strength then alloy steels are used. They have fewer tendencies to crack,
warp or distort in heat treatment. Residual stresses are also less compared to Carbon Steel
shafts.
In certain cases, the shaft needs to be wear resistant, and then more attention has to be
paid to make the surface of the shaft to be wear resistant. The common types of surface

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
hardening methods are,
 Case hardening and carburizing
 Cyaniding and nitriding

2. SHAFT DESIGN
Any shaft must be designed on the basis of
1. Strength (static and fatigue)
2. Rigidity and stiffness
In designing shafts on the basis of strength the following cases may be considered:
a. Shafts subjected to twisting moment (torsion) only
b. Shafts subjected to bending moment only
c. Shafts subjected to combined twisting (torsion) and bending moment
d. Shafts subjected to combined twisting (torsion) and bending moment with an
addition of axial loads
Before proceeding with shaft design, it is desirable to review the fundamental
relationships relating to the stresses the angle of twist, and the power transmitted in a
shaft.

2.1. Fundamental Relationships

2.1.1. Design of Shafts for Static Loading
The static loads on a shaft represent the mean loading components in designing shafts for
fatigue we thus develop the basic nature of the stress formulae from static loading, then
the fluctuating stress components the failure criteria (Soderberg, Goodman etc.) to create
specific design formulae. It is important to realise that every time we change failure
criteria, we create new design formulae.
From the relationships for  and  given in equations 2.1 and 2.2 know that the shaft is in
a biaxial stress relationship. We can use Mohr’s circle and formulae to get equations for
maximum normal stress or maximum shear stress.

Figure 2: Stress on an element of shaft surface

From Mohr’s circle we have:   

2

1, 2      2 2.1
2 2
and 2

1 ,  2       2
2 2.2
Substituting equations 2. 7 and 2.11 into equations 2.1 and 2.2:
2 2
16 M  16 M   16 T  16  2 
1 , 2     


  d 3    d 3  M  M  T 
2

d 3
 d
3
   2.3
and similarly, 16 2.4
1 , 2  M2  T2
 d3
11 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
a) Shafts subjected to twisting moment (torsion) only
i. Shearing stress:
When a shaft is subjected to a twisting moment (torque) only, a shearing stress will be
induced on the vertical Plane of the shaft.
T r
 2.5
Where: J
 - is the shear stress induced (MPa)
T- is the twisting moment (Torque) applied to the shaft (Nm)
r - is the radius of the shaft
J is the polar moment of inertia (mm4)
For a round solid shaft
 d4  r4
J  2.6
32 2

For a round hollow shaft

  (d o 4  d i 4 )
J
32

Figure 3: Shaft under Torsion

The maximum shear stress occurs at the outer surface,

Tr 16T 2.7
 
J d 3
ii. Angle of twist:

- When a shaft is subjected to twisting moment (Torque) the shaft will twist at
an angle called Twist angle
- The angle of twist can be derived from basic mechanics equations as follows:
From side perspective
AE  C
Equating expressions for AE
AE   max L
Recall C   max L
L
   max
C  max
 max  G max   max 
G
Substituting yields
Fig: Twist angle representation of a shaft under torsion

12 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
TC
 max 
J
TC L TL
  2.8
JG C JG
Where, G is the torsional modulus of elasticity in shear.
 max is the maximum shear stress
 is the twist angle

b) Shafts subjected to bending moment only

- When a shaft is subjected to a bending moment only, a bending stress will be
induced on the vertical cross-section of the shaft.

-
Figure 4: Shaft under bending

Bending stress:
Mr
 2.9
I
Where, I is the second moment of area. For a solid circular section
d 4 r 4 2.10
I  
64 4
And the maximum shear stress occurs at the outer surface,
Mr 32M
 
I d 3 2.11
c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting (torsion) and bending moment
As was stated earlier, the design formulae are developed by taking the
maximum stress formulae above, (1, 2, and 1, 2) and putting them into a
failure criterion including a safety factor n. This substitution of a failure
criteria leads to a design formula of the DET criteria and the MSST criteria.
i. MSST Design Formula
Sy 2.12
   1 2
ns
Note that if 1 = 2 this criteria is not reasonable since Sy = 0. In such cases
the DET criteria should be used. Substituting the stress formulae for 1 and
2, we get: Sy 32
 M 2 T 2 2.13
ns  d 3

Where Sy = material yield stress

ii. DET design Formula
Sy 2.14
  1   2   1 2
2 2

ns
13 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

When we substitute the relationships for stresses, moments and torques we

get: Sy

ns  d
16
3
4 M 2  3T 3  2.15
Thus the formulae for minimum required shaft diameter are:
MSST 1
 32 ns  3
d  M2  T2  2.16
  Sy 
 
To account for shock loading, experienced under different loading conditions,
the ASME code applies shock Cm and Ct to M and T respectively in equation
1
 32 ns  3

d 
S
Cm M  2
 CtT  

2 2.17
DET  y 
1
 32 ns 3  3
d  M2  T2  2.18
 Sy 4 
 
Cm and Ct for loadings of various severities are given in the following table 1:
Table 1: ASME values for Cm and Ct
Value for
Nature of Loading
Cm Ct
Stationary shaft
Gradually applied load 1.0 1.0
Suddenly applied load 1.5-2.0 1.5-2.0
Rotating Shaft
Gradually applied or steady load 1.5 1.0
Suddenly applied load, minor shocks only 1.5-2.0 1.0-1.5
Suddenly applied load, heavy shocks 2.0-3.0 1.5-3.0
Note: ASME code recommends that the working stress be taken as 55 MPa for
“Commercial Shafting”. When there is a keyway in the section at which the stress
calculations are made, the maximum working stress is to be reduced to 75% of the value
for a solid circular shaft. This reduction addresses both loss of sectional area and
increased stress due to stress concentrations.

d) Torque transmitted by shaft

60,000* P(kw) 2.19
T
2 n
1hp  0.746Kw

Where T = torque in N-m, n- revolution (rpm),  = angular velocity in radians per second
(rad/sec)
2.1.2. Shaft Design for Fatigue loading
Two basic things to consider in a fatigue or cyclic load are the peak stress and the
number of repetition of the peak stress.
After repeated cyclic loading, materials (ductile or brittle) may experience fracture-like
failure though the stress levels never exceed the material’s ultimate tensile strength. This
kind of failure is called fatigue failure.

14 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
It is observed in practice that fatigue cracks, (which usually propagate perpendicular to
the direction of tensile stress), frequently occur where there is a sharp or abrupt change in
the shape of the component or if there are additional features on the material like a fillet,
hole, keyway or external flaw or inclusion. Theoretical analysis and experimental
techniques both show that stresses within the material rise sharply at abrupt e of section.
Such features are referred to as stress concentrations or stress raisers.

Fig: Representations of a shaft under cyclic loading

Consider a point A at the top of the shaft. Since the force F is tending to bend the shaft
downwards, the shaft material at A must be in tension. Similarly, the shaft material at a
point B at the bottom of the shaft must be loaded in compression. Now let the shaft rotate
through 1800 so that point A moves to the bottom and B to the top. The shaft material at
A is now in compression and the material at B is in tension. After a further shaft rotation
of 1800, A is again at the top and in tension, while B is again at the bottom and is in
compression. The total of 3600of shaft rotation results in one complete load cycle for
points A and B and, indeed, for all points on the shaft.

Referring again to the above Figure it is seen that there is an abrupt change of shaft
diameter close to Bearing 2. This change in diameter is described as a shoulder on the
shaft.

Such a shoulder causes a significant stress concentration. The location of the shoulder is
already in a region of high bending moment and therefore of high tensile and compressive
stresses. The combination of the two factors makes that cross-section of the shaft
particularly vulnerable to fatigue failure. Note that in the above fig, the maximum
bending moment on the shaft actually occurs at Bearing 2, but the smaller shaft diameter
and stress concentration due to the shoulder makes this the cross section at which fatigue
failure will occur.

a) The Nature of Cyclic Stress

Suppose the loading is continuously varying in magnitude as shown in Fig 5 below. This
stress can be considered as being made up of two parts, the steady or average stress av,
and the variable or range stress r. Then we have:

15 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Figure 5: Fluctuating stress

 max   min
m  2.20
2
As was noted, the above design formulae do not take cyclic stresses into account. To
design for cyclic stresses, we must:
 r   max   min
2.21
Specimens are tested with combinations of r (range stress) and m average or mean
stress), and the results are plotted in Fig. 5 above.
The stress amplitude is half the stress range:
    min
 a  r  max
2 2 2.22
The stress ratio Rs is the ratio of the minimum stress to the maximum stress:
 2.23
Rs  min
 max
The amplitude ratio Aa is the ratio of the stress amplitude to the mean stress:
    min 1  Rs
Aa  a  max 
 m  max   min 1  Rs 2.24
The four most commonly used cyclic stress patterns, using constant amplitude are:

a. Fully Reversed (σm = 0, Rs = –1, Aa = ∞)

b. Non-zero mean stress (σm ≠ 0)
c. Released tension (  m   max , σmin = 0, Rs = 0, Aa = 1)
2
d. Released Compression (  m   min , σmax = 0, Rs = ∞, Aa = –1)
2
Looking at figure 6 from the shape of the curve it appears that a plot of Log stress vs log
cycles will be linear.

Figure 6: Plot of log reversing stress vs log cycles to failure

When cyclic stresses are very high (above Sl’) failure occurs in very few cycles. When

16 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
cyclic stresses are small such that they are below a level called the endurance stress, S e’,
the material will often not fail at all.
The endurance stress is related to the ultimate stress of the material, the value of the
reversing stress must be taken into account, as well as material behaviour such as notch
sensitivity, surface finish, stress concentrations and the nature of the stress. Failure in the
axial tension compression mode occurs differently from failure in the bending or torsional
modes of cyclic stress.

Figure 7: General fatigue curve

- Considering the soderberg line as a criterion, point A represents a limiting point

with an alternating strength Sa and midrange strength Sm. The slope of the load
line shown is defined as r = Sa/Sm.

The failure criterion equation for the soderberg line is:

Sa  a  Sm  b
If S m  0 then S a  S e b  Se
Se
If S a  0 then S m  S y a  
Sy
Se S S
 Sa  Se  Sm  a  m  1
Sy Se S y
Following the same relations:

Sa Sm
 Modified Goodman failure criterion  1
S e S ut
2
S S 
 Gerber failure criterion a   m   1
S e  S ut 
The stresses n a and n m can replace, where n is the design (fatigue) factor of safety.
Then the above equations becomes:

17 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
2
  1   1 n a  n m 
Soderberg a  m  mod Goodman a  m  Gerber   1
Se S y n S e S ult n S e  S ult 
Combining these stresses in accordance with the distortion energy failure theory, the von
Mises stresses for rotating round, solid shafts, neglecting axial loads, are given by,
1
1
 32 K f M a 2 16 K fsTa 2  2
 '
a  ( a
2
 3 a )  (
2 2
)  3( ) 
 d d 3
3

1
1
 32 K f M m 2 16 K fsTm 2  2
 '
m  ( m
2
 3 m )  (
2 2
)  3( ) 
 d 3
 d 3


Substitute these two equations in the above failure equations we get,

Mod. Goodman

16  1 
   
1 1
1 1
 3 
4( K f M a ) 2  3( K fsTa ) 2 2  4( K f M m ) 2  3( K fsTm ) 2 2

n d  S e S ult 
16n  1 1 

   
1 1
1
d   4( K f M a )  3( K fsTa )
2 2 2  4( K f M m ) 2  3( K fsTm ) 2 2  3

   Se S ult 
Soderberg
1 16  1
    
1 1
1
 3  4( K f M a ) 2  3( K fsTa ) 2 2  4( K f M m ) 2  3( K fsTm ) 2 2
n d  S e Sy 

16n  1 1  1
   2 2

1
1
d   4( K M ) 2
 3( K T ) 2 2
 4( K M ) 2
 3( K T )  3
   S e
f a fs a f m fs m
Sy 
Gerber
 2 2
1
 
  
   

1 1

1 8 4( K f M a )  3( K fsTa ) 2    2 4( K f M m )  3( K fsTm ) 2 S e   
2 2 2 2

 1  1   1   
n d 3 S e

   S ult 4( K f M a ) 2  3( K fsTa ) 2 2   
      
 
1
  1
 3
     
2

   
1 1 2
 8n 4( K f M a ) 2  3( K fsTa ) 2 2
   2 4( K f M m )  3( K fsTm ) S e  
2 2 2

d 1  1   1   


S e

   S ult 4( K f M a ) 2  3( K fsTa ) 2 2  
      

  

For a rotating shaft with constant bending and torsion, the bending stress is completely
reversed and the torsion is steady. So the above equations can be simplified by setting
M m andTa equal to 0.
The maximum Von Mises stress (  ' max ) can be calculated by:
And the yield factor of safety is given by:

18 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
1
  32 K f M m  M a   2  16 K fs Tm  Ta    2
2

 ' max     3 
 d 3   d 3  

Sy
ny 
 ' max
b) Factors for fatigue failures

1. Fatigue stress-concentration factor for bending (𝑲𝒇 )

𝐾𝑓 = 1 + 𝑞(𝐾𝑡 − 1)
Where: q – notch sensitivity factor, 𝐾𝑡 - is the theoretical (static) stress-
concentration factor for bending and 𝐾𝑓 - is the fatigue (dynamic) stress –
concentration factor

2. Fatigue stress-concentration factor for torsion (𝑲𝒇𝒔 )

𝐾𝑓𝑠 = 1 + 𝑞(𝐾𝑡 − 1)
Where: q – notch sensitivity factor, 𝐾𝑡 - is the theoretical (static) stress-concentration
factor for torsion and 𝐾𝑓 - is the fatigue (dynamic) stress – concentration factor

Figure 8: Notch sensitivity factor for steels

Table 2: Kt Values
Bending Torsional Axial
Shoulder fillet – sharp (r/d=0.02) 2.7 2.2 3
Shoulder fillet – well (r/d=0.1) 1.7 1.5 1.9
End mill key seat (r/d = 0.02) 2.2 3 -
Sled runner key seat 1.7 - -
Retaining ring grove 5 3 5

19 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
3. Endurance limit modifying factors
When a shaft is loaded with external loads (forces, torques and bending moments) there
are factors that affect the endurance limit of the shaft material such as the surface finish,
the size (diameter), the type of load applied and the operating condition of the shaft
material. In order to account for these factors, we must introduce endurance limit
modifying factors.

There for the endurance limit of the shaft material, accounting these factors it can be
calculated by:
Se  ka kb kc kd Se
Where:
ka = surface condition modification factor

kb = size modification factor

kc = load modification factor

kd = temperature modification factor

Se′ = endurance limit of the shaft material

Se′= 0.5 Sult
Se = endurance limit of the shaft material after applying the modification factors
a. Surface Factor k a
𝑆𝑢𝑡 − 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

Table 3: Surface factor constants a and b

Factor a
Surface Finish Exponent b
Sult (kpsi) Sult (Mpa)
Ground 1.34 1.58 -0.085
Machined or cold drawn 2.7 4.51 -0.265
Hot rolled 14.4 57.7 -0.718
forged 39.9 272 -0.995
b. Size Factor kb
for d < 8mm Kb=1

for 8mm < d < 250mm kb=1.189d-0.097

for d > 250 kb=0.6

- Note here that the kb value is first calculated by assuming the diameters of the
shaft, so the value of kb must be iterated to find the exact diameter of the shaft.
This can be achived by manually or using iterating softwares such as Ms. Excel.

20 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
c. Loading Factor k c
1 bending

k b  0.85 axial
0.59
 torsion
d. Temperature Factor k d

for T < 4500c Kd=1

for 4500c < T < 5500c kd  1  0.005(T  450)

2.1.3. Shaft Design Procedure

Before the design can begin, the shaft loadings must be known. Since the shaft transmits
torque, gear loads in the tangential and radial directions must be known. Axial
components would usually be small, but they must be considered unless insignificant. In
the case of belts and pulleys the belt tensions (slack and tension) will cause bending
loads on the shaft just as the gear tooth forces do. Chain tensions also apply bending
loads. Thus we see the shaft is subjected to both torque and bending loadings.

The design procedure is as follows:

Step 1: Develop a shear and bending moment diagram for BOTH planes of the shaft.
Note that at any position along the shaft the resultant moment M is:
2.25
M  M xy  M xz
2 2

Figure 9: Shaft design parameters

a) Shaft with two bearings at A and B and two gears with resulting Forces P1 and
P2;
b) free-body diagram of torque and forces resulting from assembly drawing;
c) moment diagram in x-z and x-y planes;
d) Torque diagram
Step 2: Draw a diagram of the torque applied to each section of the shaft. Torque will
change where power is added or extracted from the shaft. The sum of the power added
to the shaft must equal the power extracted from the shaft.
Step3: By inspection or iterative calculation of stress at positions on the shaft, find the

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
critical position along the shaft where combined stresses will be greatest. Use the
moment M and the torque T at this position when designing the shaft
Step 4: Choose a failure theory
Step 5: The failure equation and cyclic stress components into the stress formula in
terms of moments and torques

Standard sizes of Shafts

Typical sizes of solid shaft that are available in the market are,
Up to 25 mm 0.5 mm increments
25 to 50 mm 1.0 mm increments
50 to 100 mm 2.0 mm increments
100 to 200 mm 5.0 mm increments

Example 1: For a shaft-gear combination shown below determine the shaft diameter
using MSST and DET.
A
C B
180D 400D 700D
R=2 R=2

20 70 180 110 60

 Rotation rate = 720 rpm

 Yield stress of shaft = 270Mpa , safety factor = 2.5
 6 kW input at A to outputs B and C
 Gears A and C are spur gears (zero axial forces)  = 20 pressure angle
Ft  F cos and Fr  F sin  at A & C

 B is a helical gear   20 and helix angle   30 Fax  Ft sin 30 

 B transfers 70% of power i.e. 4.2 kW
Note: Thrust bearing must be in compression, so put at end D. Equilibrium
says  T  0 and  F  0
Solution: Use shear and bending moment diagram of applied forces.
FrA
FrB FtA
FtB

FaB
350 RzE
200
90 180 110 80

90 FtC

RyE
FrC
Fig: example 1 FBD

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
N  2
  104.7rad / sec
60
FtB  rB    Power on B = 4.2 kW
 FtB  200.5N
 FrB  84.28 N
 FaX  RXD  81.85N
and for A, power = 6kW
FtA  163.7 N
FrA  59.58 N
FtC  191N
FrC  69N
RXD  81.85 N , RyD  14.2 N , RyE  89.06 N , RzD  194.3N ,
RzE  677 N
M B  23.16 Nm
Continue solving for “d” by calculating the equivalent bending moment.
Example 3: The following example illustrates the design of shaft: A main shaft of
machine receives power from an electric motor (not shown in figure) through flat belt
(Fig. Eg.2).

Fig. Eg.2: Main shaft carrying a pulley and gear supported by two bearings

The rpm of the motor is 1435. The diameters of the motor and machine pulleys are 180
and 430 mm respectively. Motor is placed below the machine shaft such that the axes of
both pulleys are in a vertical plane. The main-shaft transmits power through spur gear (in
the plane D) to a drafting system through gear trains (not shown in figure). The driven
spur gear is placed above the gear D such that the axes of shaft, Gear D and driven gear
are in the same vertical plane. The power transmitted by the motor to the main shaft is

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
15kW. The pitch circle diameter and pressure angle of the gear are 300 mm and 20 °
respectively. The ratio of the tight- and slack- tensions on the belt is 3. Two bearings A
and B support the shaft. The properties of material of shaft are: Sut = 700 N/mm2 and Syt =
460 N/mm2 and G =79300 N/mm2. Determine the shaft diameter using A.S.M.E code.
The pulley and gear are mounted on shaft using keyways.
Solution:
0.75 * 0.30 * S y  0.75 * 0.30 * 460  103.5 N / mm 2
0.75 * 0.18 * Sult  0.75 * 0.30 * 700  94.5 N / mm 2
 d  94.5 N / mm 2 (the min immum of the above two values )
 180 
The rpm of the main shaft is 1435 *    600 rpm
 430 
Tourque transmitted by the shaft is given by
60kw * 10 6 60kw * 10 6
Mt    238.73 Nm
2n 2 * 600
M t  (Tt  Ts ) * radius of the main shaft pulley
M t  (Tt  Ts ) * 215  238.73 Nm
(Tt  Ts )  1110 .38 N
Since , Tt  3Ts ; Ts 555.19N and Tt  1665 .58 N

The net vertical downward force acting on the shaft in the plane of the pulley is
(Tt+Ts) = 2220.77N
Also,
Mt = Tange ntial forc e acting o n the gear * radius o f pitch ci rcle of ge ar
238732 .41 N  mm = Pt* 150 mm
Pt =1591.55 N (acts h orizonally in the pl ane of the gear)
Radial force acting on the gear is Pr = Pt * tan 200 = 579.28 N (acts vertically
downwards in the plane of gear).
The reactions at the bearings are: P and Q in the vertical plane and R and S in the
horizontal plane containing the shaft (Fig. Eg 2). Taking moments in the vertical plane
about A,
(2200.77 *900) + (579.28 * 300) = (Q * 600), we get Q = 3620.8 N.
Taking moments in the vertical plane about B,
(2200.77 *300) = (P * 300) + (579.28 *300), we get , P = 820.75 N
Similarly, the values and direction of R and S in the horizontal plane could be found out.
The bending moment diagram is constructed from left to right, at various planes
considering the forces that are acting on the plane and those on the left side of the plane.
Counterclockwise- and clockwise moments are assigned positive and negative signs
respectively.
The bending moments in the vertical plane

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
BM A  820.75 * 0  0
BM D  820.75 * 300  246225 Nmm
BM B  (820.75 * 600)  (579.28 * 600)  (3620.8 * 300)
 666234 Nmm
BM c  (820.75 * 900)  (579.28 * 600)  (3620.8 * 300)
 738675  347568  1086240  0 Nmm
The bending moment in the horizontal plane
BM A  795.78 * 0  0 Nmm
BM D  (795.8 * 300)  238734 Nmm
BM B  (795.8 * 600)  (1591.55 * 300)  477468  477468  0 Nmm
BM c  (795.8 * 900)  (1591.55 * 600)  (795.8 * 300)
 716202  954930  238734  0 Nmm
The bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig below.

Fig: Forces and bending moments at different planes of the shaft: Left- vertical
plane; Right- horizontal plane
From the bending moment diagrams, the maximum bending moment is observed at the
plane of bearing B. The resultant bending moment at the plane B is
2 2
RBM at B = (BM H + BM V )
Where, BMH = Bending moment at B in the horizontal plane. BMV = Bending moment at
B in the vertical plane.
Therefore,BMR at B = (6662312+ 02)1/2 = 666231 N-mm
From Eq. (2.17)
1
 32n s 3
d = (C m M 2 + C t T 2 ) 
 S 
 y 
If Cm = Ct = 1, then the diameter of the shaft (d) = 15.62mm
If Cm = Ct = 1.5, then the diameter of the shaft (d) = 38.53mm
2.1.4. Critical Speed of a Rotating Shaft

When the rotating speed of a shaft approaches its natural frequency, the shaft will vibrate
violently. If the rotating speed exceeds the natural frequency of the shaft the shaft will fail
due to the fatigue stressed induced. This speed is called the critical speed of the shaft
cr. It can be calculated using the following empirical equation.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

g W y
i 1,...,n
i i ,max
2.26
cr 
W y
i 1,...,n
i
2
i ,max

Equation 2.26 is known as the Rayleigh equation and does not take into account the
weight of the shaft and the flexibility of the supports and only works for a simply
supported shaft.
Where,
Wi = ith weight placed on shaft, N
yi = the total static deflection of ith weight on shaft, m
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.807 m/s2
The total deflection can be calculated by:
yi   wi ij
 ij - is the transverse deflection at location i on the shaft due to the load at location j on
the shaft (influence coefficient).
𝑏𝑗
𝛿𝑖𝑗 = { (𝑙 2 − 𝑏𝑗 2 − 𝑥𝑗 2 ) … … … … … … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑖 ≤ 𝑎𝑖 }
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
𝑎𝑗 (𝑙 − 𝑥𝑖 )
𝛿𝑖𝑗 = { (2𝑙𝑥𝑖 − 𝑎𝑗 2 − 𝑥𝑗 2 ) … … … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑖 ≥ 𝑎𝑖 }
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
Where:
𝑥𝑖 – is the location of the ith point due to the applied load (weight)
𝑎𝑖 – the location of the load that cause the deflection from the left support
𝑏𝑗 - the location of the load that cause the deflection from the right support

Figure 10 A shaft with rotation bodies

Example 4:
Assume a rotating shaft shown in Fig. eg-4 carries a maximum bending moment of 1130
Nm and a steady torque of 3390Nm. The shaft carries two weights W1=80 lb =36Kg and
W2=120 lb = 54.5Kg. The torque fluctuates 20% each way from the mean value. Kc =
Kcs = 1.35, Su = 827 Mpa , Se = 303 Mpa, Sy = 690 Mpa.
Find: (a) The value of the factor of safety ns by using the maximum shear theory,
(b) The fundamental critical speed cr of the shaft, E = 206.8Gpa.

Fig. eg-4
Solution:
K ult 1.35  827
(a)   3.682, M av  0 (rotating shaft),
e 303
r = 0.2 × 3390Nm = 670Nm

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
 max 
16
0  3.682  3390 Nm2  3390 Nm  3.682  670 Nm2
 (51mm) 3
= 280MPa
Safety factor is:
0.5 yp
Fs   1.23
 max

(b) The static deflections at the weights can be found by the equations
At A, due to 36Kg:
 d4
I=  331917.7 mm 4
64
36  1524mm  762mm
y A1 
6  2286mm  206.8GPa  331917.7

2286mm 2  762mm 2  1524mm 2  1.03mm. 

At A, due to 54.5Kg:
54.5Kg  508mm  762mm
y A2 
6  2286mm  206.8GPa  331917.7mm 4

(2286mm) 2  (762mm) 2  (508mm) 2  0.98mm. 
Total deflection at A: yA = 1.03mm + 0.98mm = 2.01mm.
At B, due to 36Kg.:

36  762mm  2286 1778mm

y B1 
6  2286 206.8GPa  331917.7
 
222861778  7622  17782  0.65mm.

At B, due to 54.5Kg:

54.5  508 1778

y B2 
6  2286 206.8GPa  331917.7

22862  17782  5082  0.94mm.
Total deflection at B: yB = 0.02565(0.65mm) + 0.03697(0.94mm) = 1.59mm.
By Eq. (1.06):
9.8136  1.03  54.5  1.59 
cr   74.14 rad / sec
36  1.03 2  54.5  1.59 2
ncr = 74.14 × 60/2 = 708 rpm, critical speed
Therefore, the maximum speed of the shaft before any vibration occurs is 708rpm.
2.1.5. Torsion of Non-Circular Shafts

a) Torsion of Rectangular Bars

The general equations for stress and deformation of a rectangular bar are:
T
 for point A1 , Fig.12
1bc 2 2.27
T
 for point A 2 , Fig.12 2.28
 2 bc 2
T 2.29
 Ang. def., radians per inch length
Gbc 3

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Constants 1, 2, and  are given in Table 4 below.
Table 4: Constants for torsion of rectangular bars
b/c 1.00 1.20 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 
1 0.208 0.219 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333
2 0.208 0.235 0.269 0.291 0.309 0.336 0.355 0.378 0.392 0.402 0.414 0.421 …
 0.1406 0.166 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333

Figure 11: Rectangular cross section

Figure 12: Composite section loaded in torsion

b) Torsion of Composite Sections

For a composite section loaded in torsion as shown in Figure. 13 we assume:
Total torque T = T1 + T2 + ...... here T1, T2... and the torques carried by part 1, part 2....

T = G( 1b1c13   2b2 c23  ...) 2.30

T
or 
G(  1b1c1   2 b2 c23  ...)
3

the shearing stress of section i is

T i ci
i 
 i (  b c   2b2 c23  ...)
3
1 1 1
2.31

c) Torsion of Thin-Walled Tube

It can be shown that the shear stress in the wall is given by
T

2Ac 2.32
The deformation per unit axial length is
T a
 2 
4A G c
2.33

Where A is the area enclosed by the line running through the centre of the wall section, c
is the width of the narrowest wall, and a is the length of the centre line around the wall.
For the tube of Figure.14, they are
A = (h - w)(l - w), c = w
a = 2(h - w) + 2(l - w) = 2(h + l - 2w)

Figure 13: Thin-walled tube

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Exercise
During the operation of the transmission system shown below, the resultant gear force
PA=2.7 kN acts at an angle of 20 degrees from the y-axis while the shaft rotates at
1000rpm.Design a stepped shaft using all failure theories by creating a proper shaft layout
with a factor of safety of 1.5 assuming it is made of cold-drawn steel with ultimate stress
of 586Mpa that has a ground finish, reliability of 90% at room temperature operation.

29 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
3. KEYS
The most commons method of transferring power (torque) from a shaft to a pulley,
etc. is by means of a key. Various kinds of keys are shown in Figure 15.

Figure 14: Types of keys

In practical applications keys are generally 1/4 of the shaft diameter. The length is
adjusted to meet the strength requirement. It is assumed that the force due to torsion is
uniformly distributed over the length of the key and at the surface of the shaft.
The stress concentrations for keyways are usually chosen as shown in Fig. below.

Fig. Factor of stress concentration

If bending is also present Kt = 3 is used for both.
In the design of keys, shearing and compressive stresses should be checked.

3.1. Key and Keyway Design

A key may fail either by crushing stress or by shearing stress.
3.1.1. Crushing Failure

Fig. Key and keyway

F
T
Acrushing  l
d F   n  Acrushing
r 2

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
 yc
Compressive stress allowable is  ac 
kf
The design stress S  ns c or S  ns k f  all
Where kf - stress concentration
ns - Safety factor
3.1.2. Shearing Failure
You have to consider this failure type if the key needs replacement.

y
Ash  wl y 
2
T A
R   y  shear
r ns k f
for square keys w = d
4. COUPLINGS
Couplings are used to connect two shafts. Usually rigid and flexible couplings are used
as shown in Figure 16.
There are two types of couplings:
1. Rigid couplings -- used for perfectly aligned shafts.
2. Flexible couplings -- permit lateral or angular misalignment.

Figure 15: Types of couplings

31 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Example 5: For the coupling shown in Fig. eg3, the key is 12.7mm × 12.7mm. The
shaft carries a steady power of 37.3Kw at 150 rpm. For all parts, yp = 413.7 MPa, and
yp = 206.8MPa. Find the following stresses and the ns based on the yield point:
(a) Shear and crushing in key.
(b) Shear in bolts.
(c) Bearing on bolts in flange.

Fig. Example 3

Solution:
(a) Shear and crushing in key
- Torque transferred
60,000 37.3
T=  2.4KNm
2 xx150
- Tangential force at shaft surface:
T 2400Nm
F=   85.4KN
r 20.63mm
- Area in bearing for key

h1   12.7mm  89mm  6.35mm  524.8mm2 .

1 1
Ac =
2 2
- Compressive stress:
F 85400N
c    163MPa
A 524.8mm 2
 yp 413.7 MPa
ns    2.54 .
c 163MPa
- Area in shear for key
A s = w1  12.7mm  89mm  6.35mm  1049 mm 2 .
- Shearing stress in key:
F
  81.5 MPa
As
 yp
ns   2.54 in shear

(b) Area in shear for bolts

A s = 6   15.875mm  1188mm 2 .
2

- Force at bolt circle: 4

2372.7 Nm
F  31.14KN
76.2mm

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
- Shear stress in bolts:
F
- Factor of safety =  26.2MPa
As
 yp
ns   7.89

(c) Area in bearing for bolts
A b  6 15.875mm 15.875mm  1512.3 mm 2 .
- Compressive stress on bolts:
F
c   20 Mpa
Ab
- Factor of safety:
 yp
ns   20.1
c

33 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
PROBLEMS
1. A heat treated steel shaft of tensile yield strength of 350 MPa has a
diameter of 50 mm. The shaft rotates at 1000 rpm and transmits 100 kW
through a gear. Select an appropriate key for the shaft and gear combo.
2. A shaft is loaded in bending and torsion such that Ma = 67.8 Nm, Ta = 45 Nm,
Mm = 56 Nm, and Tm = 34 Nm. For the shaft, Sult = 690 MPa and Sy = 552
MPa, and a fully corrected endurance limit of Se = 207 MPa is assumed. Let
Kf = 2.2 and Kf s = 1.8. With a design factor of 2.0 determine the minimum
acceptable diameter of the shaft using the
(a) DE-Gerber criterion.(25.8 mm)
(b) DE-elliptic criterion.(25.7 mm)
(c) DE-Soderberg criterion.(27.7 mm)
(d) DE-Goodman criterion. (27.3 mm)
(e) Discuss and compare the results.
3. At a machined shaft shoulder the small diameter d is 28 mm, the large
diameter D is 42 mm, and the fillet radius is 2.8 mm. The bending moment is
142 Nmm and the steady torsion moment is 124 Nmm. The heat-treated steel
shaft has an ultimate strength of Sut = 724 MPa and a yield strength of Sy =
565 MPa. The reliability goal is 0.99.
(a) Determine the fatigue factor of safety of the design using each of the
fatigue failure criteria.
(b) Determine the yielding factor of safety.
4. An AISI 1020 cold-drawn steel shaft with the geometry shown in the figure
e.g.4 carries a transverse load of 7 kN and a torque of 107 Nm. Examine the
shaft for strength and deflection. If the largest allowable slope at the bearings
is 0.001 rad and at the gear mesh is 0.0005 rad, what is the factor of safety
guarding against damaging distortion? What is the factor of safety guarding
against a fatigue failure? If the shaft turns out to be unsatisfactory, what would
you recommend to correct the problem? (2.38)

Fig e.g. 4
5. In the double-reduction gear train shown, shaft a is driven by a motor attached
by a flexible coupling attached to the overhang. The motor provides a torque
of 282.5 Nm a speed of 1200 rpm. The gears have 20o pressure angles, with
diameters shown on the figure e.g 5. Use an AISI 1020 cold-drawn steel.
Design one of the shafts (as specified by the instructor) with a design factor of
1.5 by performing the following tasks.
(a) Sketch a general shaft layout, including means to locate the gears and
bearings, and to transmit the torque.(1.08KN, 4.84KN)

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
(b) Perform a force analysis to find the bearing reaction forces, and
generate shear and bending moment diagrams.
(c) Determine potential critical locations for stress design.
(d) Determine critical diameters of the shaft based on fatigue and static
stresses at the critical locations. (40 mm)
(e) Make any other dimensional decisions necessary to specify all
diameters and axial dimensions. Sketch the shaft to scale, showing all
proposed dimensions.
(f) Check the deflection at the gear, and the slopes at the gear and the
bearings
(g) If any of the deflections exceed the recommended limits, make
appropriate changes to bring them all within the limits.

All dimensions in mm
Fig e.g. 5
6. A bevel-gear shaft mounted on two 40-mm 02-series ball bearings is driven at
1720 rev/min by a motor connected through a flexible coupling. The figure
e.g.6 shows the shaft, the gear, and the bearings. The shaft has been giving
trouble in fact, two of them have already failed and the down time on the
machine is so expensive that you have decided to redesign the shaft yourself
rather than order replacements. A hardness check of the two shafts in the
vicinity of the fracture of the two shafts showed an average of 198 Bhn for one
and 204 Bhn of the other. As closely as you can estimate the two shafts failed
at a life measure between 600,000 and 1,200,000 cycles of operation. The
surfaces of the shaft were machined, but not ground. The fillet sizes were not
measured, but they correspond with the recommendations for the ball bearings
used. You know that the load is a pulsating or shock-type load, but you have
no idea of the magnitude, because the shaft drives an indexing mechanism,
and the forces are inertial. The keyways are 10 mm wide by 5 mm deep. The
straight-toothed bevel pinion drives a 48-tooth bevel gear. Specify a new shaft
in sufficient detail to ensure a long and trouble-free life.

All dimensions in mm
Fig e.g. 6
35 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
7. A 25 mm-diameter uniform steel shaft is 607 mm long between bearings.
(a) Find the lowest critical speed of the shaft.(868 rad/s|)
(b) If the goal is to double the critical speed, find the new
diameter.(51mm)
(c) A half-size model of the original shaft has what critical speed? (1736
rad/s)
8. For a uniform-diameter shaft, does hollowing the shaft increase or decrease
the critical speed?
9. The shaft shown in the figure e.g.9 carries a 16 Kg gear on the left and a 9 Kg
gear on the right. Estimate the first critical speed due to the loads, the shaft’s
critical speed without the loads, and the critical speed of the combination.
(55,970 rpm, 36,468.76 rpm)

All dimensions in mm
Fig e.g. 9
10. The figure e.g.10 shows a dial assembly. The dial is 500 mm in diameter and
16 mm thick solid steel and is bolted to the top flange of the shaft. The shaft is
carried on the tapered bearing. All shaft fillet radii are 0.5 mm. A 5 kw motor
drives the shaft through a 20:1 reduction gearbox and a commercial bellow
coupling. The maximum rated torque from the motor is 17.5 Nm and its stall
torque is 3 times its rated torque. Find the diameter of the shaft for a minimum
factor of safety of 2. The maximum stress and the critical speed of the shaft
also design the key b/n the shaft the dial and the coupling.

Fig e.g. 10

36 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN OF GEAR DRIVES

37 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Nomenclature
a addendum, m P power, W
b dedendum, m Pz normal load, N
b* Hertzian half-width, m Pz’ normal load per face width, N/m
bw face width, m pa axial pitch for helical gears, m
bl backlash, m pb base pitch, m
Cr contact ratio pc circular pitch, d/N, m
c clearance, m pcn normal circular pitch, m
cd center distance, m pd diametral pitch, N/d, in.-1
d pitch diameter, m pdn normal diametral pitch, in.-1
db base diameter, m pH maximum Hertzian contact pressure, pa
dbg base diameter of gear, m pp pitch point
dbp base diameter of pinion, m Qv transmission accuracy level number
dg pitch diameter of gear, m Rq rms surface finish of gear, m curvature sum in x direction,
dog outside diameter of gear, m m
dop outside diameter of pinion, m Rx effective radius, m
dp pitch diameter of pinion, m r pitch radius, m
dr root or fillet diameter, m rb base radius, m
E modulus of elasticity, Pa rbg base radius of gear, m
E’' effective modulus of elasticity, rbp base radius of pinion, m
Pa gear ratio rg pitch radius of gear, m
HB Brinell hardness ro outside radius, m
hk working depth, m rog outside radius of gear, m
hp transmitted horsepower, hp rop outside radius of pinion, m
ht total depth, m rp pitch radius of pinion, m
I area moment of inertia, m4 T torque, N-m
Ka application factor t tooth thickness, m
Kg geometry factor for contact stress th circular tooth thickness measured on pitch circle, m
Km load distribution factor tha actual circular tooth thickness measured on pitch circle, m
Kb size factor ~
u mean velocity, m/s
Kv dynamic factor vt pitch-line velocity, ft/mm
Lab length of line of action, m W load, N
La*b* length of line from a* to b*, m Wr radial load, N
m module, d/N, mm Wt tangential load, N
N number of teeth w' load per unit width, N/m
Na gear rotational speed, rpm Y Lewis form factor
Ng number of teeth in gear Yj geometry factor
Np number of teeth in pinion Z angular velocity ratio
Nv equivalent number of teeth  coefficient of thermal expansion, ºC-1
ns safety factor ag angle of approach of gear, deg
g bending stress of gear, Pa ap angle of approach of pinion, deg
max maximum normal stress, Pa rg angle of recess of gear, deg
r contact stress of gear, Pa rp angle of recess of pinion, deg
 pressure angle, deg 0 atmospheric viscosity, Pa-s
n pressure angle in normal  film parameter
direction for helical gears, deg  Pressure-viscosity coefficient, m2/N
 helix angle, deg d design stress, Pa
 angular velocity of shaft, rad/s  angular speed of gear, rad/sec

38 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
DESIGN OF GEAR DRIVES
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
 Understand different types of gear drives
 List advantages and disadvantages of helical gears.
 Explain how additional speed reduction can be obtained with shaft-mounted
gear drives.
 Design gear drives based on bending and contact stresses.

INTRODUCTION
A gear is a component within a transmission device that transmits rotational force to
another gear or device. A gear is different from a pulley in that a gear is a round wheel
which has linkages ("teeth" or "cogs") that mesh with other gear teeth, allowing force to
be fully transferred without slippage. Depending on their construction and arrangement,
geared devices can transmit forces at different speeds, torques, or in a different direction,
from the power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another
gear
Gear’s most important feature is that gears of unequal sizes (diameters) can be combined
to produce a mechanical advantage, so that the rotational speed and torque of the second
gear are different from that of the first.

A pair of meshing gears is a power transformer, a coupler or interface which marries the
speed and torque characteristics of a power source and a power sink (load). A single pair
may be inadequate for certain sources and loads, in which case more complex
combinations such as the above gearbox,
known as gear trains, are necessary. In the
vast majority of applications such a device
acts as a speed reducer in which the power
source drives the device through the high
speed low torque input shaft, while power
is fed from the device to the load through
the low speed high torque output shaft.

Usually a gear is assembled as a gear box

to perform its purpose. A typical
commercial gearbox is shown with its
cover removed. It demonstrates that it is
usually more attractive economically to
split a larger speed ratio into a number of
stages (pairs of gears) rather than to effect
it with a single pair. There are three stages
here - the first spiral bevel pair is followed by two helical pairs.
A couple of features of the box are immediately apparent:
The advantages of gear transmissions are:
 Transmit high power and torque,
39 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
 High efficiency,
 Stable speed ratio,
 Long life, and
 Reliable.
The disadvantages are:
 High requirements in manufacturing and assembling,
 Expensive, and
 Unfitting for long distance transmission.
The design of gears requires the study and objective understanding of the following
subjects:
 Kinematics and geometrical shapes
 Analysis of forces produced in gears and in gear trains
 Design of gears against breakage
 Design of gears against deterioration and wear
Types of gear Drives
Here are the most common types of gear drives:

A pair of spur gears for A rack and pinion. The A helical gears connect
mounting on parallel shafts. straight rack translates parallel shafts, however the
The 10 teeth of the smaller rectilinearly and may be teeth are not parallel to the
pinion and the 20 teeth of regarded as part of a wheel shaft axes but lie along
the wheel lie parallel to of infinite diameter helices about the axes
the shaft axes

Straight bevel gears for Hypoid gears - one of a A worm and worm wheel
shafts whose axes intersect number of gear types for gives a large speed ratio but
offset shafts with significant sliding

40 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
1. SPUR GEARS
Spur gears are simply toothed wheels used for transmitting power and motion from one
shaft to another. The design of gears is highly standardised by the AGMA (American
Gear Manufacturers’ Association).

1.1. Terminologies
The following are some gear terminology associated with most gears, including spur
gears. A sketch of the gear teeth nomenclature is shown in Fig. 17.
- Pinion: when two gears are in mesh, it is customary to call the smaller as the
pinion.
- Base Circle: the circle from which the theoretical curve of gear teeth starts.
- Pitch Circle: the circle on a gear on which the thickness of a tooth equals to the
space.
- Addendum Circle: the circle drawn through the top of the gear tooth, its centre is
at the gear centre.
- Root or Dedendum Circle: the circle drawn through the bottom of the gear tooth,
its centre is at the gear centre.
- Addendum: the radial distance from the pitch circle to the addendum circle.
- Dedendum: the radial distance from the pitch circle to the dedendum circle.
- Clearance Circle: the largest circle centred at the gear centre, which is not
penetrated by the teeth of the mating circle.
- Clearance: the radial distance from the clearance circle to the dedendum circle.
- Whole Depth: the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum
circles.
- Working Depth: the radial distance between the addendum and the clearance
circles.
- Circular Pitch pc: the distance measured along the pitch circle, from a point on
one tooth to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth of the gear. Hence,
d
pc 
N 3.1
where d is the diameter of the pitch circle, N is the number of teeth of the gear. In
order for two gears to mesh, they must have the same circular pitch.
- Diametral Pitch pd: this is equal to the number of teeth of a gear divided by the
diameter of the pitch circle (in inches only). That is,
N
pd  (d in mm) 3.2
d

To relate pc and pd, we have from Eq. (7.1)

pd pc   3.3
In order for two gears to mesh, they must have the same diametral pitch.

- Module m: reciprocal of the diametral pitch, but used only with the SI units.
That is,
d
m  m in mm)
N 3.4

41 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Note that unit conversion is necessary in going from Pd to m. Hence,
25.4
m 3.5
pd
and the circular pitch in mm. is
pc  m
3.6
- Pressure Line: the common inner tangent of the two base circles of the meshing
gears.
- Pressure Angle  : the angle between the pressure line and the tangent of the pitch
circle. Most gears are manufactured with  = 14½ or 20. In order for two gears
to mesh, they must have the same pressure angle on the pitch circles.

Relation between radii r and rb of pitch circle and base circle is.
rb  r cos 3.7
- Backlash: the difference between tooth space and tooth thickness of the meshing
teeth. It is measured on the pitch circle. The purpose is to avoid interference in
gear motion and resulting in jams. Too large a backlash can produce large shock
loads resulting in excessive wear, noise and inaccurate gear motion.
- Speed Ratio: the speed ration of two meshing gears is

Figure 16: Spur gear terminology

Figure 17: Pressure line and pressure angle

1.2. Meshing Geometry
When using spur gears the designer (you) must use a small gear (pinion gear) that has at
least a certain number of teeth. Below that number, all the load normally shared by
several teeth will fall on just one tooth, which can exceed the yield strength of the single
tooth. Since gears are used to change shaft rotational speed, we must also consider gear
ratio. The gear ratio between a pinion (small gear) and the large gear is:
dg Ng
gr  
d N 3.8
p p

42 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
The distance between the gear centres is:
Cd 
d p  dg 
2 3.9
This distance must be highly accurate (within 0.00508 mm) or else the teeth will not
contact properly and will wear badly.

1.3. Interference in spur gears

Tooth contact begins and ends at the intersections of the two addendum (pitch) circles
with the pressure line. If two gears do not contact at this line, the top flank of the driving
gear will chip away the surface of the driven gear this phenomenon is called Interference.
The minimum no. of spur gear pinion for a Gear ratio of 1 to avoid the effects of

 
interference is thus given by:
2k
Np  1  1  3 sin 2  3.10
3 sin 
2

Where: k=1 for full depth teeth, 0.8 for stub teeth
The minimum no. of spur gear pinion for a Gear ratio >1 to avoid the effects of
interference is thus given by:
Np 
2k  g  g 2  (1  2 g ) sin 2   3.11
(1  2 g r ) sin   
2 r r r

1.4. Power and Gear Ratio

It should be noted again that power is equal to torque multiplied by rotation speed.

P  T
3.12
and this must be constant from the input gear to the output gear. Therefore, if torque T
rises, then speed must be reduced. The power is constant; we cannot put five watts in and
get fifteen watts out! Notice also, in SI units:
1 watt  1 N  m  1 rad / se c

1.5. Contact Ratio

As pinion and gear rotate, the number of teeth in contact varies slightly. We can
analyse the geometry to determine the average number of teeth in contact.

Figure 18: Details of line of action, showing angles of approach and recess for both pinion
and gear.

43 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
The involute profile serves to keep the line of action of the forces on the tooth along the
line of action shown in the figure 19. Generally, a contact ratio greater than two is
desirable. A contact ratio below two means that only one pair of teeth is carrying the total
load for part of the time. An absolute minimum value for Cr is 1.2. From the diagram the
expression for contact ratio Cr can be derived:

Cr 
1

 r 2 r 2
pc cos 
op bp   r
1
2
og
2
 rbg
2

1
2   C tan
 d
pc 3.13

1.6. Speed Ratio

We know the gear ratio gr is the inverse to the rotational speed ratio z.
Ng
if g r  ,
Np

Then because  p rp   g rg
 g rp N p
  z 3.14
 p rg N g
The rule is that the big gear turns slower than the little one. Sometimes, in automotive
transmissions annular gear arrangements are used. Here the centre distance is given as:
Cd  r2  r1  3.15

1.7. Power Transmitting Force

Figure 19: Force transmitted from one gear to another

Recall the force, Fp between a pair of teeth always lies along the pressure line which is
tangent to the base circle as shown in Fig.20.In terms of quantities pertaining to the base
circle, the power due to this force is determined by:
2nT 2nrb Fp
kW   ( Fp in N , rb in m)
1,000 1,000 3.16
FP in Fig.20 can be divided into two components, one, Wt, tangential to the pitch circle
and the other Wr directed toward the centre. The latter transmits no power. The
substitution of Wt = FP cos  and Eq. (3.7) into Eqs. (3.14) and (3.15) results
2nrWt 3.17
kW  (Wt in N , r in meter, n in rev / se c)
1,000
1.8. Dynamic Forces between Gear Teeth
Noise which is generated at high speeds by a pair of gears is caused by the impact forces
between contacting tooth surface. The greatest cause of these dynamic forces is error in
teeth profile due to improper manufacturing. Various approaches have been taken to
determine the dynamic force. One of these gives:

44 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
2e
Fd  kmc 3.18
t
Where
e = combined error in both gears (given in Table 4)
t = time duration of contact in sec.
k = spring constant for the pair of teeth
me = equivalent mass for the two gears
Table 4: Total Tooth-to-Tooth Spacing and Profile Errors, e, Inches

The contact time for one tooth is

60 1
t  (n in rpm)
n N
then Eq. (3.18) becomes
enN
Fd  kmc
30 3.19
The spring constant for a pair of meshing teeth is given by
b  E1E2 
k  
9  E1  E2 
where E1 and E2 are Young’s moduli of the two gears. Esteel = 207Gpa. If both gears are
steel, then
k = 11,500 b N/mm 3.20
The equivalent mass is obtained from consideration of moment of inertia and is given by
m 'm ' newton  se c 2
mc  1 2 3.21
m1 ' m 2 ' mm

m' 
b
2 gr0
2
r
0
4
 r1
4
 3.22

45 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
where
 = density of the material, steel = 7.68 × 10-5 N/mm3
ro, ri = the outside and inside radii respectively of the rim. ro = r
g = the gravitational constant = 9,806.6 mm/sec2
b = width of the gear
If the two gears are solid and made from the same material, then Eq. (3.22) can be
simplified to
C2 br12
mc   3.23
1 C2 2g
Where C = N2/N1.

1.9. Allowable Stresses on spur Gear Teeth

1.9.1. Bending Stresses

Usually gears fail because the tooth surface is deformed and wear takes place due to the
small sliding action of the contact point. Thus the contact stress may also be the critical
design stress.
The allowable bending stress on a tooth could limit the power transfer for thinner teeth at
low contact ratios.
An important factor in the bending stress is the Lewis Factor Y.
K vWt
 3.24
bw mY
Where bw = tooth face width
The Lewis Factor, Y, (also called the Geometry Factor) is given in the graph below.
Figure 20: Application factor as a function of driving power source and driven
Driven machines
Power source Uniform Light shock Moderate shock Heavy shock
Application factor, K a
Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
Light shock 1.20 1.40 1.75 2.25
Moderate shock 1.30 1.70 2.00 2.75
machine

Figure 21: Spur gear geometry factor for pressure angle of 20º and full depth involute

46 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
For general design, Mott’s formula (1992) is used:
Wt Pd K a K s K m
t  3.25
bwY j K 
Where
Ka = application factor associated with load variations in operation
Ks = size factor (often 1.0)
Km = load distribution factor associated with tooth alignment
Kv = dynamic factor associated with loading and unloading of the tooth

Figure 22: Load distribution factor as function of face width and ratio of face width
to pitch diameters

The variable Q is a gear quality number. From Fig 24. it can be seen that low values of Q
are associated with large backlash and large errors in tooth profile. As speed increases
dynamic impact forces increase, thus for Q < 5, the maximum pitch line velocity
vt < 2500 ft/min. (12.7 m/sec) For Q = 5,6, or 7 is typical for machinery. Q > 7 are specified
for high speed use. Pitch line velocity is defined as:
d p N ap d g N ag
t   3.26
60 60
where
Na = rpm of gear or pinion
d = diameter of gear or pinion
1 ft/min =0.00508 m/sec

Figure 23: Dynamic factor as function of pitch-line velocity and transmission

accuracy level

47 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
1.9.2. Contact Stresses
If contact stresses are too high the surfaces of the gear teeth will be scored. Lubrication
films break down and metal-to-metal contact takes place. The teeth grind away the
profile due to sliding. If the gear is surface hardened, surface fatigue may occur, resulting
in surface flaking. These flakes can then become a grinding powder that rapidly destroys
the machine.
1
 W'  2 3.27
p H  E'  
 2 
where E’ is the effective modulus of elasticity between the two gear materials. E’
determines the surface conformity (contact area) due to deformation under load.
Thus: 2
E' 
1  a 1  b
2 2

 3.28
Ea Eb
W’ is the dimensionless load:
w'
W' 
E' Rx 3.29
Where w’ = load per unit width Pz/bw and,
1  1 1  1
 
Rx  rp rg  sin 3.30

When this is all related properly, contact stress is given as:

1 1
 W' K a K s K m  2 K K K  2
 c  E'    p H  a s m 
 2K   K 
3.31
As is given in the text, lubricant and film thickness can be calculated to select weights of
lubricants.
Example 1:
A 21-tooth spur pinion mates with a 28-tooth gear. The diametral pitch is 0.12 teeth/mm
and the pressure angle is 20◦. Make a drawing of the gears showing one tooth on each
gear. Find and tabulate the following results: the addendum, dedendum, clearance,
circular pitch, tooth thickness, and base-circle diameters; the lengths of the arc of
approach, recess, and action; and the base pitch and contact ratio.
Solution:
'1 1
a   8.4mm
p 0.12
'1.25 1.25
b   10.5mm
p 0.12
c  b  a  2.2mm

pc   26.6mm
p
pc
t  13.3mm
2
N1
pinion base circle : d1   178mm
p

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
d1b  d1 cos 20 0  167.1mm
N2
Gear base circle : d 2   237 mm
p
d 2b  d 2 cos 20 0  222.8mm

Base pitch : pb  p c cos   cos 20 0  25mm
p
Contact Ratio : Cr 
1
pc cos 

r 2 r 2
op bp   r
1
2
og
2
 rbg
2

1
2   (r  r ) tan   1.55
 op bp
pc
Example 2:
A steel spur pinion has a pitch of 0.24 teeth/mm, 22 full-depth teeth, and a 200 pressure
angle. The pinion runs at a speed of 1200 rev/min and transmits 15 hp to a 60-tooth gear.
If the face width is 51 mm, estimate the bending stress.
Solution: N 22
diameter of the spur pinion : d    92mm
p 0.24
From fig : 21 : Y  0.33
dn
The pitch line velocity of the pinion : v   5.85 m s
60
6.1  v
Daynamic factor : K v   1.96
6.1
P 746 *15hp
Tangential load on the gear :Wt    1.69 kN
v 5.85 m s
KW 1.96 *1690 N
The bending stress is   v t   47.1 MPa
bw mY 51mm * 4.18mm * 0.33

49 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
2. BEVEL GEARS
Bevel gears may have straight or curved teeth. They require special mountings because
they produce large axial thrust forces. Unlike in spur gears where the pitch circle lies in a
cylinder (pitch cylinder), the pitch circle in bevel gears lies in a cone.

2.1. Terminology and Geometry

Some of the terminologies in bevel gears are identical with spur gears.
Straight bevel gears are specified, in pairs, as follows:
 --- Pressure angle (as for spur gears)
N1, N2 --- Number of teeth
Pd --- Diametral pitch, measured at outside diameter
b --- Width of tooth, measured along pitch cone
b --- Width of blank, required for calculating Fd
The above parameters are shown in Fig. 25.

Figure 24: Straight-tooth bevel gear Figure 26: Forces at midpoint

of bevel gear tooth
From Fig. 25, the diametral pitch is
N1 N
Pd   2
2r01 2r02 3.33
The circle pitch at mid-point of tooth is
2r1 2 r01  12 b sin1 
p  
N1 N1 3.34
and is required in calculating tooth bending capacity.
A bevel gear has a virtual number of teeth N which is the number of teeth a spur gear of
radius ro (back cone radius) would have. N is used in calculating wear capacity c and
bending capacity b. N is given by
N1
N1 ' 
cos1 3.35

Back cone radius, ro, is used in determining tooth profiles.

50 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
The virtual radius at mid-tooth r is used in determining c. r is given by
r
r1 '  1
cos1 3.36
2.2. Allowable Stresses on Gear Teeth

2.2.1. Bending Capacity

The bending capacity, b, is given by the same formula as for spur gear teeth, that is,
Wt pd K a K s K m
t  3.37
bwY j K
where
t = bending strength of material
Yj = Lewis form factor using N
b = the gear width
pd = the diametral pitch at the tooth mid-point, given by Eq. 3.34

2.2.2. Contact Capacity

The wear capacity, Fw, is given by the equation for Fw for spur gears, but modified as
follows, 1
 W ' Ka Ks Km 
2


 c  0.75Q' E '  

 2K  3.38
where
0.75 = reduction factor due to poor contact in bevel gear teeth
Q = determined by N1 and N2 for spur gears, that is

2 N2 ' 2 N 2 sin1 2 N2
Q'   
N1 ' N 2 ' N1 cos1   N1 cos1  N1 tan1  N 2
3.39
2.3. Horsepower Capacity
The horsepower capacity or loading capacity is determined in the same way as for spur
gears. (equations 3.16 – 3.17)

2.4. Loads on Bearings by Bevel Gears

In determining bearing loads in bevel-gear applications, it is assumed that all forces act
on the centre of the tooth. From Fig. 26, the forces and components are:
Wt
Pz 
cos  3.40

Wr  Wt tan  cos 3.41

Wa  Wt tan sin 3.42

In the above equations, Wt can be obtained from the known horsepower:

Wt n
hp  (n in rpm ) 3.43
63,025

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
3. HELICAL GEAR
Helical gears have teeth that lie in helical paths on the cylinders instead of teeth that are
parallel to the shaft axis. Although helical gears are more expensive to produce than spur
gears, they have the advantage of having more teeth in contact for the same pitch
diameter and the same tooth size when they are on parallel shafts than do spur gears.
Consequently, they can transmit more power for a given pitch diameter and can do it
more smoothly and quietly.
Compared to spur gears, helical gears run more quietly and are not as sensitive to shaft
alignment. The teeth on a helical gear appear to be wrapped around a base cylinder. If
the cylinder were long enough the teeth would form a spiral around the cylinder. The
figure below shows the helix angle .

3.1. Terminology and Geometry

p --- Circular pitch
Pn --- normal pitch, = p cos
 --- Helix angle, usually 15~ 30
d --- Pitch circle diameter
Pd --- diametral pitch, = /p
Pdn --- normal diametral pitch, = /pn
N --- Actual number of teeth, = d/p = Pdnd cos
N --- Formative number of teeth, = N/cos 3

Figure: Geometry of a Helical Gear

The formative number of teeth is defined as the number of teeth in a gear of radius R as
shown in Fig. 27.
Note that meshing helical gears (on parallel shafts) must have the same helix angle but
opposite hand as depicted in Fig. 28.

Figure 25: Matching helical gears on parallel shafts

52 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
The centre distance c is
d1  d 2 1  N1 N2  3.44
c=    
2 2 Pdn  cos 1 cos 2 
1 1 2P c
  dn
cos 1 cos 2 N2 3.45
Where N1

N2

Figure 26: Helical gear, front and side view

Helical gears have a spot of contact on each of several teeth. The spot of contact between
a pair of teeth begins at one end of the tooth and slides along the teeth to the other end as
the teeth move through the meshing region. Due to the spot contact, helical gear teeth do
not fail in bending. They always fail due to contact stresses.

3.2. Pitches of Helical Gear Teeth

Loads are transferred between teeth on the normal to the tooth. The pitch can be related
to the spur gear terminology by adjusting for the helix angle . Thus the normal pitch (ie
the pitch taken along the normal to the tooth) is:
pcn  pc cos 3.46
and the diamteral pitch is
p
p dn  d 3.47
cos 
and the axial pitch is p 3.48
p a  p c cot   cn
sin 
Again because the forces between helical gear teeth are passed along the normal to the
tooth, we have axial force on the gear as well as the tangential and radial forces we had
for the spur gear. We also have an axial pitch which is the distance between similar
points on two adjacent teeth measured along the axis of the shaft.

3.3. Equivalent Teeth

Since teeth are counted along the perpendicular between the teeth, the effective number of
teeth of a helical gear is slightly higher than for a spur gear. The equivalent number of
teeth Nh is
N 3.49
Nh 
cos 3 

53 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Pressure angles must also be adjusted such that
tan h
tan   3.50
cos

3.4. Interference in helical gears

As in spur gears helical gears also encounter interference too.
The minimum no. of helical gear pinion for a Gear ratio of 1 is given by:

Np 
2k cos
3 sin t
2

1  1  3 sin 2  
For a gear ratio greater than one the minimum pinion teeth for the helical gear is given
by:
2k cos  g  g 2  (1  2 g ) sin 2  
Np 
(1  2 g r ) sin t 
t 
2 r r r


3.5. Contact Ratios

The diameter d of a helical gear is:
N N
d  3.51
pd p dn cos
and the center-to-center distance is:
d p  dg Np  Ng 3.52
Cd  
2 cos  2 p dn cos 
The effective contact ratio thus becomes:
Crt  Cr  Cra 3.53
bw bw tan bw sin 
Cra    3.54
pa pc Pcn

3.6. Tooth Forces

The tangential forces must be the same for spur and helical gears of the same diameter.
The axial load on the tooth (the load trying to push the gear along the shaft) is:
Wa  Wt tan 3.55
and the radial load trying to push the shafts apart is:
Wr  Wt tan  3.56
Thus the design load W between the teeth for any desired Wt is:
Wt
W
cos  n cos  3.56

3.7. Loads on Bearings by Helical Gears

Figure below shows the force Fn, normal to the tooth surface, for a helical tooth. The
tangential, radial and axial components Ft, Fr, Fa are:

Ft  Fn cos n cos 3.57

Fr  Fn sin n 3.58
Fa  Fn cos n sin 3.59

54 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
where n is the pressure angle normal to the teeth.
tan  n  tan  cos 3.60

Figure: Loads on a helical gear tooth

3.8. Horsepower Capacity of Helical Gears

(1) Bending is not critical; horsepower capacity is determined by wear capacity,
Fw, and dynamic force, Fd.
(2) Fd is calculated as for spur gears and is assumed normal to the tooth surface,
which is in the same direction as Fn.
(3) Fw is calculated as for spur gears except that the formative diameter is used.
d1
Fw  bQK 3.61
cos 2

where K is given in Fig 31 and Fig 32 for known BHN, Q is given by


2N 2 2N 2
Q=  (for parallel shafts) 3.62
  N1  N 2
Therefore, N1  N 2
Fp  Fw  Fd 3.63
Ft  Fp cos  n cos
3.64
and Ft r1 n1
hp = (n in rpm) 3.65
63,025

Figure 27: Allowable working stresses and Values of K for Gear Materials

55 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Figure 28: Values of constant K as determined by Brinell hardness number for 20º
full-depth spur gears

Example 3:
1-hp electric motor runs at 1800 rev/min in the clockwise direction, as viewed from the
positive x axis. Keyed to the motor shaft is an 18-tooth helical pinion having a normal
pressure angle of 20◦, a helix angle of 30◦, and a normal diametral pitch of 0.5 teeth/mm.
The hand of the helix is shown in the figure. Make a three-dimensional sketch of the
motor shaft and pinion, and show the forces acting on the pinion and the bearing reactions
at A and B. The thrust should be taken out at A.

Figure Eg 3
Given:
Pn=0.5teeth/mm, P=0.8Kw, n=1800Rpm,  n  20º,   30º
Required:
Reaction forces at A and B
Solution:
p t  p t cos  0.5 cos 30 0  0.43 teeth / mm
Diameter of the pinion (d):
no of teeth of the pinion 18
d   42mm
transverse pitch( pt ) 0.43
Calculate the Torque (T):
60000 P 60000 * 0.8kw
T    4.3 Nm
2n 2 * 3.14 *1800rpm

56 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Calculate the tangential load (Wt)
T
Wt   179 N
d
2
Calculate the radial and axial loads created by the contact of the two gears
Wr  Wt tan t 179 N * tan 22.8  76 N
Wa  Wt tan 179 N * tan 30  104 N

Draw the FBD:

From the FBD

Fax  Wa 104 N , Fay  13.8 N , Faz  54 N
Fbx  0, Fby  90 N , Fbz  234 N

57 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
4. WORM GEARS
Worm gears are used for transmitting torque between intersecting shafts. A worm gear,
consisting of a screw meshing with a gear, can be used to obtain a large speed reduction
(for power transmission, z = 10  80). The lead angle and the friction between worm and
gear teeth can be chosen such that the worm cannot be driven by a torque applied to the
gear (self-locking). The disadvantage is low efficiency and serious wear.

4.1. Terminology and Geometry

For worm:
 --- lead angle p2 --- axial pitch
pc1 --- circular pitch d1 --- pitch diameter
L --- lead-advance per revolution
N1 --- number of threads (or starts)
For meshing gear:
pc2 --- circular pitch d2 --- pitch diameter
N2 --- number of teeth
From figure. 33, the circular pitch normal to the direction of the teeth pn is

pn  pc1 sin   pc 2 cos 3.66

The normal diametral pitch, pdn, is
  
pdn   
pn pc1 sin  pc 2 cos  3.67
From the figure 33, d1 = N1pc1, therefore,

N1 pc1 N1 pn N1
d1    3.68
  sin pdn sin
similarly,

N 2 pc 2 N 2 pn N2
d2    3.69
  cos  pdn cos 

Figure 33: Geometry of the worm

The worm diameter must be large enough to provide sufficient rigidity. When the threads
are integral with the shaft, it is recommended that the pitch diameter be no less than the

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
0.875
value given by c
d1 
2.2 3.70
Note: this equation should be used as a check and not for making design calculations.
Combining Eqs. (3.67) and (3.68) and also from Fig. 33:
N1d 2 L p
tan     c2
N 2d1 d1 pc1 3.71
The centre distance c is
d1  d 2 1  N1 N 
c    2 
2 2 pdn  sin  cos   3.72
Divide Eq. (3.72) by N2 and rearrange
2 p dn c  1
  3.73
N2 sin  cos 
Where  is the speed reduction
N1

N2 3.74
The Eq. (3.73) has been plotted in Figure 33.

Figure 29: Design chart for worm and helical gears for 90º shafts

In one revolution of worm, pitch point on worm travels the circumference of the pitch
circle N1pc1, therefore the pitch line velocity V1 (worm) is
n d nN p 3.75
V1  1 1  1 1 c1 m / sec.
60 60
In one revolution of worm, pitch point on gear travels N1p2, therefore the pitch line
velocity V2 (gear) is
nN p
V2  1 1 c 2 m / sec. 3.76
60
4.2. Horsepower Capacity of Worm Gears
4.2.1. Horsepower Capacity worm gears
The mechanical horsepower capacity of a worm gear reducer is
 n cb d  1   2 180  3.77
hp = 1.4  1 2 2

 330 180  Vs0.85

 
59 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Where n1 is in rpm, c, b2, and d2 are in mm, and Vs in m/s. Vs, the total velocity of sliding
between the teeth, is given by V
Vs  1
cos 3.78
or using figures 34 or 35 below. Recommended b2 (face width of the worm wheel) is

b2  1 3 c0.875 3.79

Figure 30: Curve for determination of Vs0.85 from Vs

Figure 31: Recommended values of quantities used in design of worm gears

4.2.2. Thermal Horsepower Capacity

Horsepower can also be determined from consideration of heat loss and efficiency.
Hpoutput = hpinput – hploss 3.80
The efficiency using power screw theory is
cosn   tan  hpoutput
  3.81
cosn   cot  hpinput

60 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
here  n is the pressure angle normal to the teeth,  is the friction coefficient given in
Figure 37.
Table: Values of coefficients of Friction  for Different Values of Sliding, Vs*
Vs, mps µ Vs, mps µ Vs, mps µ Vs, mps
0 0.15 0.6096 0.0519 4.572 0.0227 0.4572
0.0254 0.099 0.7112 0.0498 5.08 0.0217 0.508
0.0508 0.09 0.8128 0.0477 6.096 0.02 3.556
0.1016 0.08 0.9144 0.0456 7.112 0.0186 4.064
0.1524 0.073 1.016 0.0435 8.128 0.0175 14.224
0.2032 0.0691 1.27 0.04 9.144 0.0167 15.24
0.254 0.0654 1.524 0.0365 10.16 0.016 20.32
0.3048 0.062 2.032 0.0327 11.176 0.0154 25.4
0.3556 0.06 2.54 0.0295 12.192 0.0149 30.48
B A

120000 113451.7125

93009.9625
Cl , Heat dissipated (W/(m2 C)

100000

80000 73590.3
84628.845
60000 52330.88 71341.7075

57032.4825
40000
43336.51
20000 28618.45

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Speed of worm shaft (rpm)

Figure 32: Heat dissipating capacity of worm gear box, A, without fan; B, with fan
on worm shaft.
Hence,
hpoutput  hpinput  hpinput  hploss or hploss  hpinput 1   

Or
hploss
hpinput  3.82
1 -
The loss of power is given by
1058C1A c T
hp loss  3.83
Where 60  33,000
1058 = Nm.
C1 = cooling rate, in (hr m2 deg C). Given in Fig. 37 above
Ac = cooling area in m2,  0.3c1.7, here c is the centre distance
T = temperature rise, in C
Then from Eq. (3.83), the input horsepower based on thermal capacity of reduction can be
obtained.

61 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
4.3. Loads on Bearings by Worm Gears
The loads acting on the worm can be found in the same way as in the analysis of the
power screw. The tangential force is the sum of the components, that is
Ft  Fn cos n sin   Fn cos 
3.84
= Fn  cos n sin    cos  
in which n is the pressure angle in the normal direction,  is the lead angle and  is the
friction coefficient between the worm and the meshing gear.

The radial force is the sum of the components in EO direction, that is

Fr = Fn cosn cos tan 3.85
and tan n
tan   3.86
cos 
Substituting Eq. (3.86) into Eq. (3.85) results
Fr = Fn sinn 3.87
The axial force is the sum of the components in AO direction, that is

Fa  Fn cos n cos   Fn sin 

= Fn cos n cos    sin   3.88
Expressing the above force components in terms of Ft which can be determined from the
horse capacity, we have  Ft
Fn  cos sin   cos
 n

 Ft cos n cos    sin  

Fa 
 cos n sin   cos
 Ft sin  n
Fr  3.89
 cos  n sin   cos
To find the loads acting on the bearings, it is also necessary to identify the rotating
direction of the gear. This can be easily determined by using the bolt-and-nut analogy.
Using Fig.38 as an example, taking the worm as the bolt, and the gear as the nut. Assume
the worm is right-handed, and turn the bolt clockwise with the right hand while
preventing nut rotation with the left. The nut will move axially along the bolt toward
your right hand. Therefore, the surface of the gear in contact with the worm will move in
the x direction. Thus the gear rotates clockwise as shown in Fig. 38.

62 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Figure 33: Determination of the rotating direction of the gear

Exersise
A two-stage, step-up gearbox drives a compressor and has a lubrication pump mounted on
one of the gear shafts, Fig. 1. Tables 1 show the spur-gear data. All gears in the drive
have 20 pressure angles. The gears are made of steel. A 50-hp (37.3-kW) motor drives the
gearbox at 3550 rpm. Design this gearbox (including the shaft, the key and the gears?

Figure 1: Two-stage step-up gearbox driving a compressor

Table 1: Spur Gear Data
Number of teeth, N Pitch radius Face width Lewis form factor, y
R (in) mm F (in) mm
Gear 1 133 3.325 84.5 1.25
Gear 2 47 1.175 29.8 1.25
Gear 3 116 2.90 73.7 1.00
Gear 4 64 1.60 40.6 1.00

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
PROBLEMS
1. A 15-tooth spur pinion has a module of 3 mm and runs at a speed of 1600 rev/min.
The driven gear has 60 teeth. Find the speed of the driven gear, the circular pitch, and
the theoretical center to-center distance. (400rpm, 35, 83mm)
2. Design a spur gear drive for a heavy machine tool with moderate shocks. The pinion
is transmitting 18 kW at 1200 rpm with a gear ratio of 3.5. Design the drive and check
for elastic stresses and plastic deformation. Make a sketch and label important
dimensions carried.
3. In a spur gear drive for a stone crusher, the gears are made of C40 steel. The pinion is
transmitting 20 kW at 1200 rpm. The gear ratio is 3. Gear is to work 8 hours per day,
six hours a week and for 3 years. Design the drive.
4. A 21-tooth spur pinion mates with a 28-tooth gear. The diametral pitch is 0.112
teeth/mm and the pressure angle is 20◦. Make a drawing of the gears showing one
tooth on each gear. Find and tabulate the following results: the addendum, dedendum,
clearance, circular pitch, tooth thickness, and base-circle diameters; the lengths of the
arc of approach, recess, and action; and the base pitch and contact ratio.(8.5mm,
10.6mm, 2.2mm, 2.6mm, 123.3mm, 178mm, 25mm, 1.55)
5. A motor shaft rotating at 1500 rpm has to transmit 15 kW to a low speed shaft with a
speed reduction of 3:1. The teeth are 20° involute with 25 teeth on the pinion. Both
the pinion and gear are made of steel with a maximum safe stress of 200 N/mm 2. A
safe stress of 40 N/mm2 may be taken for the shaft on which the gear is mounted and
also for the key. Design a spur gear drive to suit the above conditions. Assume
starting torque to be 25% higher than the running torque.
6. A 20◦ straight-tooth bevel pinion having 14 teeth and a diametral pitch of 0.24
teeth/mm drives a 32-tooth gear. The two shafts are at right angles and in the same
plane. Find:
(a) The cone distance (74mm)
(b) The pitch angles (23.63, 6637)
(c) The pitch diameters (59.2mm)
(d) The face width (22.2mm)
7. A parallel helical gearset uses a 17-tooth pinion driving a 34-tooth gear. The pinion
has a right hand helix angle of 30◦, a normal pressure angle of 20◦, and a normal
diametral pitch of
0.2 teeth/mm. Find:
(a) The normal, transverse, and axial circular pitches. (16mm, 18.5mm, 31.75mm)
(b) The normal base circular pitch. (15mm)
(c) The transverse diametral pitch and the transverse pressure angle. (0.17 teeth/mm,
22.80)
(d) The addendum, dedendum, and pitch diameter of each gear. ( 5.08mm, 6.35mm,
100mm, 195mm)
8. For a spur gearset with φ = 20◦, while avoiding interference, find:
(a) The smallest pinion tooth count that will run with itself. (13 teeth)
(b) The smallest pinion tooth count at a ratio mG = 2.5, and the largest gear tooth
count possible with this pinion. ( 15 pinion teeth, 45 teeth)
64 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
(c) The smallest pinion that will run with a rack. (18 teeth)
9. The figure shows a pair of shaft-mounted spur gears having a diametral pitch of 5
teeth/in with an 18-tooth 20◦ pinion driving a 45-tooth gear. The horsepower input is
32 maximum at 1800 rev/min. Find the direction and magnitude of the maximum
forces acting on bearings A, B, C, and D.( 1.47 KN)

All dimensions in mm
Fig e.g. 6
10.A steel spur pinion has a module of 1.25 mm, 18 teeth cut on the 20◦ full-depth
system, and a face width of 12 mm. At a speed of 1800 rev/min, this pinion is
expected to carry a steady load of 0.5 kW. Determine the resulting bending stress.(
68.6 MPa)
11.In a spur gear 11KW motor running at 1450rpm drives a shaft trough a pair of spur
gears with a velocity ratio is 4.5:1. Forged steel SAE 1045 pinion and CI gear are
specified. Design the gear and check for the dynamic and heat load considerations.
12.A 200 20-tooth cast-iron spur pinion having a module of 4 mm drives a 32-tooth cast-
iron gear. Find the contact stress if the pinion speed is 1000 rev/min, the face width
is 50 mm, and 10 kW of power is transmitted. (−617 MPa)
13.A 20◦ full-depth steel spur pinion rotates at 1145 rev/min. It has a module of 6 mm, a
face width of 75 mm, and 16 milled teeth. The ultimate tensile strength at the
involute is 900 MPa exhibiting a Brinell hardness of 260. The gear is steel with 30
teeth and has identical material strengths. For a design factor of 1.3 find the power
rating of the gearset based on the pinion and the gear resisting bending and wear
fatigue. (19.8 kW)
14.a) Derive an expression for beam strength of a spur gear tooth (Lewis equation)
using Standard notations. State the assumptions under which this equation is valid.
b) It is desired to transmit 11 kW from a motor shaft rotating at 1440rpm to a low speed
shaft with a speed reduction of 3:1. Single stage spur gear drive is employed for this
purpose. The gear teeth are 200 FDI. Pinion has 25 teeth. Starting torque is 50%
higher than running torque. Both the pinion and gear are made of heat treated steel
with a maximum allowable stress of 210Mpa. Design the suitable spur gear drive
from the point of view of dynamic and wear strength
15. a) Derive an expression for the load carrying capacity of helical gear tooth.
b) Determine the module and face width of a helical gear tooth for a helical gear
pair to transmit a power of 25KW from a shaft rotating at a speed of 1500rpm to
a parallel shaft to be 360rpm maintaining a center distances of 180mm.
16.The figure shows a 16 Teeth 200 straight bevel pinion driving a 32 Teeth gear, and the
location of the bearing centerlines. Pinion shaft a receives 2.5 hp at 240 rev/min.

65 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Determine the bearing reactions at A and B if A is to take both radial and thrust
loads.( 1.6KN, 238N, 3.12KN)

All dimensions in mm
Fig e.g. 13
17.Design a pair of helical gears to transmit 10 kW at 1000 rpm of the pinion. Reduction
ratio of 5 is required. Give details of the drive in a tabular form.
18.Design a pair of full depth involute teeth helical gears to transmit 5 kW at 1440 rpm.
Use C45 steel for the gears. Number of teeth on pinion may be 24 and that in on gear
56. Check the compressive and bending stresses. Make a simple sketch and label the
important dimensions of the drive.
19.Design a pair of helical gears to transmit 37.5 kW at 1750 rpm of the pinion. The
drive is subjected to heavy shock loading. The speed reduction is 4 and the helix angle
is 15°. Select suitable material and design the gear. Check for working stresses and
sketch the drive.
20.A general purpose enclosed gear train is based on parallel helical gears, specified life
is 36,000 hours. Torque at driven shaft is 411 N-m. Driving shaft speed is 475 rpm.
Velocity ratio is 4. It is desired to have standard center distance. Design the gear
drive.
21.The figure shows a double-reduction helical gear set. Pinion 2 is the driver, and it
receives a torque of 135.5 Nm from its shaft in the direction shown. Pinion 2 has a
normal diametral pitch of 0.32 teeth/mm, 14 teeth, and a normal pressure angle of 20◦
and is cut right-handed with a helix angle of 30◦. The mating gear 3 on shaft b has 36
teeth. Gear 4, which is the driver for the second pair of gears in the train, has a normal
diametral pitch of 5 teeth/in, 15 teeth, and a normal pressure angle of 20◦ and is cut
left-handed with a helix angle of 15◦. Mating gear 5 has 45 teeth. Find the magnitude
and direction of the force exerted by the bearings C and D on shaft b if bearing C can
take only radial load while bearing D is mounted to take both radial and thrust load.
(FDz=685N, FDy= -1.89KN, FDx= 7.2KN)

66 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

All dimensions in mm
Fig e.g. 14
22.a) Explain clearly the meaning of formative number of teeth as referred to bevel gear.
b) A pair of bevel gear is required to transmit 30 kW at 500 rpm. The output shaft is
running at 200 rpm and is at right angles to input shaft. The gears are of 200 involutes
stub teeth. The pinion is cast steel; the safe static strength is 142 Mpa. The gear is of
cast iron, whose static strength is 71 Mpa. Design the gear drive.
23.Design a worm drive to connect two shafts 300 mm apart and to transmit 10 kW. The
transmission ratio is 20:1 and worm shaft is to make 400 rpm. The lead angle is to be
within 200. The worm is made of hardened steel (210 Mpa) and worm gear of
phosphor bronze (105 Mpa). Determine the probable temperature to which the gears
may be heated and the efficiency.
24. A pair of straight bevel gears has a velocity ratio of 2:1. The pitch circle diameter of
the pinion is 80 mm. 5kW power is supplied to the pinion, which rotates at 800 rpm.
The pressure angle is 200. Design the gears.
25.Design a worm gear reducer to transmit 7.5 kW at 100 rpm. The input speed from the
motor is 1500rpm.
26.Design a worm gear drive to transmit 22.5 kW at a worm speed of 1440 rpm. Velocity
ratio is 24:1. An efficiency of at least 85% is desired. The temperature rise should be
restricted to 40°C. Determine the required cooling area.
27.Design a worm gear and determine the power loss by heat generation. The hardened
steel worm rotates at 1500 rpm and transmits 10 kW to a phosphor bronze gear with
gear ratio of 16.
28.A right-hand single-tooth hardened-steel (hardness not specified) worm has a catalog
rating of 2000 W at 600 rev/min when meshed with a 48-tooth cast-iron gear. The
axial pitch of the worm is 25 mm, the normal pressure angle is 14.50 the pitch
diameter of the worm is 100 mm, and the face widths of the worm and gear are,
respectively, 100 mm and 50 mm. The figure shows bearings A and B on the worm
shaft symmetrically located with respect to the worm and 200 mm apart. Determine
which should be the thrust bearing, and find the magnitudes and directions of the
forces exerted by both bearings.( FB = 318.5i + 613j N, FA = 318.5i - 1946j - 5119k)

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All dimensions in mm
Fig e.g. 19
29. A two tooth right hand worm transmits 2 kW at 2950 rpm to a 32 tooth worm gear.
The worm gear is of 4 mm module, 20o pressure and a face width of 30 mm. The
worm is of pitch diameter of 50 mm with a face width of 65 mm. The worm is made
of steel case carburized OQ and T and ground. The worm gear is made of phosphor
bronze.
(a) Find the center distance, the lead and the lead angle.
(b) Find the bearing reactions on the worm gear and worm shaft and the torque
output.
(c)Find the efficiency
30.Write a computer program that will analyze a spur gear or helical-mesh gear,
accepting φn , ψ, Pt , NP, and NG ; compute mG , dP , dG , pt , pn , px , and φt ; and
give advice as to the smallest tooth count that will allow a pinion to run with itself
without interference, run with its gear, and run with a rack. Also have it give the
largest tooth count possible with the intended pinion.
31.A gear box is to be designed with the following specifications:
Power=14.72 KW, number of speeds =18 Minimum speed = 16 rpm, step ratio =1.25
Motor speed = 1400 rpm. The 18 speeds are obtained as 2*3*3
a) Sketch the layout of the gear box.
b) Draw the speed diagram.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN OF
BELT & CHAIN DRIVES

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Nomenclature
L N1  N 2 p = bearing pressure, Pa
A =  pall = allowable bearing pressure, Pa
Pt 2
pt = pitch, m
Am = cross-sectional area of metal r = sheave or pulley radius, m
strand in rope, m2
r = chordal rise, m
a = link plate thickness, m
rc = chordal radius, m
a1 = service factor
Su = ultimate strength, Pa
a2 = multiple strand factor in rolling
T = torque, N-m
chain
t = thickness, m
B =
N2  N1  u = belt velocity, m/s
2 w = belt weight, N
c = distance from neutral axis to wt = belt width, m
outer fiber, m wz = normal load, N
cd = center distance w’z = normal load per unit length,
D = sheave or pulley diameter, m N/m
d = diameter, m  = angle used to describe loss in
dw = wire diameter, m arc of contact, deg
E = modulus of elasticity, Pa
 = sheave or pulley angle, deg
F = friction force, N
 = mast angle, deg
Fa = force due to acceleration, N
 = boom angle, deg
Fc = centrifugal force, N
Ff = fatigue allowable force, N r = angle or rotation to give
Fi = initial tensile force, N chordal rise
Fr = rope weight, N  = coefficient of friction
Ft = total friction force, N  = normal stress, Pa
Fw = deadweight, N all = allowable normal stress, Pa
F1 = driver friction force, N b = allowable normal stress
F2 = driven friction force, N t = tensile normal stress, Pa
f1 = overload service factor  = wrap angle; gantry line angle,
f2 = overload service factor deg
G = gantry line tension, N  = angle from horizontal; gantry
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.3 line system angle, deg
ft/s = 9.807 m/s2
2
 = angular velocity, s-1
gr = velocity ratio
HB = Brinell hardness
hp = power transmitted, W
hpr = rated power transmitted, W
ht = V-belt height, m
I = area moment of inertia, m4
L = belt length, m
lp = hoist rope length, m
M = bending moment, N-m
m = mass, kg
m’ = mass per unit length, kg/m
N = number of teeth in sprocket
Na = speed of revolution, rpm
ns = safety factor

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
DESIGN OF BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
 Sketch and illustrate the parts of a belt, sprocket and chain drive.
 Identify types of belt drives and chain drives.
 Calculate sprocket and sprocket tooth dimensions using pitch and the
number of teeth.
 Calculate and specify pulley and sprocket ratios.
 Design a Power transmission v-belt and roller chain drive system
following certain design steps.

INTRODUCTION
Belts, ropes, chains, and other similar elastic or flexible machine elements are used in
conveying systems and in the transmission of power over comparatively long distances. It
often happens that these elements can be used as a replacement for gears other relatively
rigid power-transmission devices. In many cases their use simplifies the design of a
machine and substantially reduces the cost.

In addition, since these elements are elastic and usually quite long, they play an important
part in absorbing shock loads and in damping out and isolating the effects of vibration.
This is an important advantage as far as machine life is concerned.

Most flexible elements do not have an infinite life. When they are used, it is important to
establish an inspection schedule to guard against wear, aging, and loss of elasticity. The
elements should be replaced at the first sign of deterioration. Flexible belts are often used
to transmit power from one shaft to another where it is not critical to maintain an exact
speed ratio between shafts.

These flexible machine elements have the following advantages:

- provide versatility (allow for some misalignment)
- quiet and cheaper
- good shock absorbers
- suitable for large centre distances

1. BELT DRIVES
Belts drives are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted
depends upon the following factors:
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions (operating conditions) under which the belt is used.
Generally, the belt drives are usually classified into the following three groups:

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
A. Light drives: These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds upto about
10 m/s as in agricultural machines and small machine tools.
B. Medium drives: These are used to transmit medium powers at belt speeds over 10
m/s but up to 22 m/s, as in machine tools.
C. Heavy drives: These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22
m/s as in
Compressors and generators.

Types of Belt Drives

The most commonly used types of belt are:
A. The flat belt is rectangular in cross-section
B. The V-belt is trapezoidal in section
C. The circular belt or rope is circular in section

2. V-BELTS

There are three kinds of belts V, flat, and linked V belts. Of course, the V belts are most
commonly used as it can transfer more power than a flat belt does. Assume a V belt and
flat belt apply the same pressure Q on the pulley (see Fig. 39):

Figure 34: V belt forces

The friction force acts between the belt and the pulley
Q
Ff = Fn     Q 
sin 2
Where  is the coefficient of friction and  is the equivalent coefficient of friction
 4.1
  
sin 2
Usually  = 34 ~ 38
There is a gap between the bottom of the belt and the flat of the pulley (see Fig.40), that
will permit the belt to maintain wedging as it becomes narrower from wear. Some

Figure 35: V-Belt notation

Standardised cross-sections and lengths are given in the tables below.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Table 5: Dimensions of several different V-Belts
Dimensions of Several Different V-belts
Light Duty Standard V-Belts High Capacity V-Belts
2L 3L 4L A B C D E 3V 5V 8V
w t [mm] 6.35 9.525 12.7 12.7 16.7 22.23 31.75 38.1 9.53 15.88 25.4
h t [mm] 3.175 6.35 7.144 7.94 10.32 13.5 19.05 18.3 7.94 13.5 22.23

Table 6: Outside circumferences (mm) of high-capacity Table 7: Pitch lengths of multiple V-Belt
Cross Section
3V 3V,5V 3V,5V,8V 5V,8V
A B C D E
635 1270 2540 3810 693.4
673.1 1320.8 2692.4 4064 820.4
922.0 934.7
711.2 1422.4 2844.8 4318
998.2 937.3
762 1524 2997.2 4572 1099.8 1112.5
800.1 1600.2 3175 4826 1201.4 1214.1
850.9 1701.8 3352.8 5080 1328.4 1341.1 1369.1
1430.0 1442.7
901.7 1803.4 3556 5385
1557.0 1569.7 1597.7
952.5 1905 5690 1760.2 1772.9 1800.9
1016 2032 5994 1938.0 1950.7 1978.7
1079.5 2159 6350 2065.0
2103.1 2131.1
1143 2286 6731 2192.0 2192.0 2232.7
1206.5 2413 7112 2319.0 2331.7 2359.7
2471.4 2512.1
2509.5
2700.0 2712.7 2740.7
2877.8 2890.5 2918.5
3081.0 3093.7 3121.7 3131.8
3284.2 3296.9 3324.9 3335.0
3703.3 3731.3 3741.4
4058.9 4086.9 4097.0
4439.9 4467.9 4478.0
4617.7 4645.7 4655.8 4686.3
4998.7 5026.7 5036.8 5067.3
5379.7 5407.7 5417.8 5448.3
6103.6 6118.9 6116.3 6121.4
6865.6 6880.9 6878.3 6883.4
7627.6 7642.9 7640.3 7645.4

3. GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF V-BELTS

3.1. Centre Distance (C) for V-belt Drive
In assembling a V-belt drive, the pitch diameters of the pulleys and the belt length are
usually known. The distance between pulley centres must be determined. This distance
may be approximated, as shown in Fig. 41 (b), with sufficient accuracy by the equation:

Figure 36: Layout for determining center distance

C
1
l   r1  r2 2  r2  r1 2 4.2
4
Where l is the length of the belt.
In Fig. 41(a), angle  determines the length of contact between the belt and the pulley
and, hence, determines the friction available for power transmission. From the figure 41,
73 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
r2  r1
cos 
C 4.3
In normal working condition, the speed of the belt must be equal to the circumferential
speeds of the two pulleys, therefore
N1r1 = N2r2
Or the speed ratio
N r
gr  1  2 4.4
N 2 r1

Where:
D = diameter of large pulley, d = diameter
of small pulley, C = centre distance, θ =
angle of contact

B  B 2  32( D  d ) 2
C
16
where, B  4 L  2 ( D  d )
For a crossed belt:

3.2. Tensions inside a V-belt

3.2.1. Relation of Tight-side and Slack-side Tensions

Taking an element of the belt (see Fig. 42), dl = rd, the normal force is dFn, then the
friction force is dF = dFn. The tensions on two sides of the element dl are F and F + dF.
From the balance of the element:
n direction: d d
 Fn  dFn  Fsin 2  F + dF sin 2  0
since d is small, then sin d  d and ignore, d F  d we have (Note dF  dr is 2nd
2 2 2 2
order term) dFn = Fd

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
t direction:
d d
F t  Fn  Fcos  F + dF cos 0
2 2

Figure 37: Relation of tensions

d
Substitution of dFn = Fd and cos  1 gives:
2
F d - dF = 0
dF
 d
or F
Integration of the above equation yields:
1 

T1
dF = d
T2 F 0
or
F1
 e  4.4
F2
where e  2.718 and  = 2 is the wrap angle on the smaller or drive pulley.
For V-belt, the equivalent coefficient of friction, that is, Eq. (4.1), should be used

instead of  in Eq. (4.4), hence, 

F1 
 e   e 2
sin
F2
4.5
For pulleys of equal diameter, then  =, the tight-side tension F1 is taken as five times
the slack-side tension F2. Thus by Eq. (4.5) we have
 ln5


sin 2  4.6
Therefore Eq. (4.6) becomes ln5 
F1
e   e1.02463
F2 4.7
The power can be transmitted by the V-belt is given by
Watt = (F1  F2 )V 4.8
Where F1 and F2 are in N. and V is given by

dN
V= m/sec. 4.9
60
in which d is the pulley diameter in inches and N is its speed in rpm.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Example 1:
Two Pulleys, one 450 mm diameter and the other 2 00 mm diameter, on Parallel shafts
1.95 m apart are connected by a crossed belt. Find the length of the belt required and the
angle of contact between the belt and each Pulleys. What power can be transmitted by the
belt when the larger Pulley rotates at 200 Rpm, if the maximum Permissible tension in the
belt is 1kN and the coefficient Ot friction between the belt and Pulley is 0.25?
Given
D = 450mm, d = 200mm, C = 1 ⋅ 95m, nD = 200Rpm, T1 = Tmax = 1𝑘𝑁, 𝜇 = 0 ⋅ 25
Required
- Length of the belt (L)
- The contact angle
- The power transmitted by the belt
Solution
 The angle on both pulleys :
Dd 
 d    2 sin 1    3.008 rad  172.3
0

 2C 
Dd 
 d    2 sin 1    3.72 rad  187.5
0

 2C 
 The length of the belt
1
L = 4C 2  ( D  d ) 2  ( D d  d D )
2
L  5.028 m
 The power transmitted
T1 T 1kN
 e d  T2  1d  0.25*3.008  0.47 kN
T2 e e
DnD
but , P  (T1  T2 )v  (T1  T2 )  (1000 N  470 N )4.71m sec
60
P  2.5kw
3.2.2. Force Analysis of V-Belt
The peak force at a point of the belt is different at different working positions. It is made
up of the side tension, a force Tb caused by bending around the pulley and a force Tc due

Figure 38: Force at different points along belt

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
to the centrifugal effects. From Fig. 43, we have the peak force: (F1 and F2 are the max
belt force over each pulley)
at point B
4.10
F1 = T1 + Tb1 + Tc
at point E
F2 = T1 + Tb2 +Tc 4.11
Note: these forces will be used for belt life
Kb K
Where Tb1  113 and Tb2  113 b
d1 d2
4.12
d1 and d2 are pulley diameters in mm
2
 V  4.13
Tc  172.82 *10 3 K c  
 1,000 
V is belt velocity in m/sec
Kb and Kc are given in the following table 8, for different sizes of the belt.
Table 8: Design constants for V-Belts
Section Kb Kc
A 220 0.561
B 576 0.965
C 1600 1.716
D 5680 3.498
E 10850 5.041
3V 230 0.425
5V 1098 1.217
8V 4830 3.288

3.2.3. Determination of V-belts Life L

The life of a V-belt is determined largely by empirical methods. The expression for life,
N' l
L, is L min utes 4.14
12V
Where N is the number of belt passes to failure, l is the length of the belt and V is the
belt velocity in ft./min. given by Eq. (4.9). N is determined from Miner’s rule for
cumulative damage due to fatigue and is given by
1 1 1
 
N  M1 M 2 4.15
Where M1 and M2 are the number of applications of forces F1 and F2 respectively that the
belt can withstand before failure occurs. M1 and M2 are empirically determined by
x x
Q Q
M1  168.2 *106   and M 2  168.2 *106   4.16
 F1   F2 
in which Q and x are obtained from the table 9.
Table 9: Design constants of V-Belts

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

3.2.4. V-belt design steps

To design a V-belt properly we must follow the following 15 design steps:

1st. Calculate the design power (DP)

DP = Service Factor (Table 10) x input power

Table 10: Service factorSelect belt type

Driver type
AC Motors: Normal torque* AC Motors: High torque*
DC Motors: Shunt-wound DC Motors: Series-wound
Engines: Multiple cylinder Engines: 4-cylinders or less
cylinder
Driven machine type <6h 6-15 h >15 h <6h 6-15 h >15 h
per day per day per day per per per day
day day
Agitators, blowers 1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.3
fans, centrifugal
pumps, conveyors,
light generators,
machine tools, mixers
Gravel bucket 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.4
conveyors, textile
machines, hammer
mills
Heavy crushers, ball 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6
mills, hoists
Rubber extruders 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.8
Any machine that can 2 2 2 2 2 2
choke
* Synchronous, split-phase, three phase with starting torque or break down torque less than 250% of
full-load torque
Rpm fasterpulley
2nd. Calculate speed ratio (SR) SR 
Rpmslowerpulley

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
3rd. Determine the minimum pulley diameter from table 11
Table 11: Dimensions of standard V-belts according to IS: 2494 - 1974
Type of Power Minimum Top width Thickness (t) Weight per
belt ranges in pitch diameter (b) mm mm meter length
Kw of pulley (D) in newton
mm
A 0.7 – 3.5 75 13 8 1.06
B 2 – 15 125 17 11 1.89
C 7.5 – 75 200 22 14 3.43
D 20 – 150 355 32 19 5.96
E 30 - 350 500 38 23 -
4th. Calculate the velocity of the belt (Vb) (m/sec)
Dn
vb 
60
5th. Find the rated power (here remember to change the pitch diameter in to mm)

Figure 39: V-Belt Power rating

6th. Calculate the power added

Figure 40: power added Vs speed ratio of V-belts

Total power (hp/belt)  Ratedpower  power added to rated power

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
7th. Estimate the center distance (Cesst)
D2  Cesst  3( D2  D1 )
8th. Find the non-actual belt length (Lna)
2 ( D2  D1 ) 2
Lna  2Cesst  ( D2  D1 ) 
 4Cesst
9th. Find the standard belt length (Lstandard) using Table 12:
Table 12: Standard pitch lengths of V-belts according to IS: 2494 - 1974
Type of belt Standard pitch lengths of V-belts in mm
A 645, 696, 747, 823, 848, 925, 1001, 1026, 1051, 1102, 1128, 1204, 1255,
1331, 1433, 1458, 1509, 1560, 1636, 1661, 1687, 1763, 1814, 1941, 2017,
2068, 2093, 2195, 2322, 2474, 2703, 2880, 3084, 3287, 3693
B 932, 1008, 1059, 1110, 1212, 1262, 1339, 1415, 1440, 1466, 1567, 1694,
1770, 1821, 1948, 2024, 2101, 2202, 2329, 2507, 2583, 2710,2888, 3091,
3294, 3701, 4056, 4158, 4437, 4615, 4996, 5377.
C 1275, 1351, 1453, 1580, 1681, 1783, 1834, 1961, 2088, 2113, 2215, 2342,
2494, 2723, 2901, 3104, 320, 3307, 3459, 3713, 4069, 4171, 4450 4628,
5009, 5390, 6101, 6863, 7625, 8387, 9149
D 3127, 3330, 3736, 4092, 4194, 4473, 4651, 5032, 5413, 6124, 6889, 7648,
8410, 9172, 9934, 10696, 12220, 13744, 15268, 16792
E 5426, 6137, 6899, 7661, 8423, 9185, 9947, 10709, 12233,13757, 15283,
16805
10th. Calculate actual centre distance
B  B 2  32( D2  D1 ) 2
Cact 
16
where, B  4 Ls tan dard  2 ( D2  D1 )
11th. Find wrap angle, small pulley
 D2  D1 
 d  180  2 sin 1  
 2Cact 
12th. Determine the correction factor ( C )

Figure 41: Angle of wrap correction factor (Cθ )

13th. Calculate the corrected power (hp)
Corrected Power  1.2 * C * TP
14th. Calculate the number of belts needed
Design Power (hp)
# belts 
Corrected Power/belt
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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
15th. Calculate the life of the belt in hours (L)
1 1 1 N 'l
  L  13 (sec)
N M1 M 2 12V
l- belt length in mm V-belt speed in m/sec
Where: M1 and M2 are the number of applications of peak forces F1 and F2
x x
Q Q
M1  168.2 *106   and M 2  168.2 *106  
 F1   F2 
Kb K
Tb1  113 and Tb2  113 b
d1 d2
2
 V 
Tc  172.82 *10 K c  3

 1,000 
The constants Q and x can be found in the following table:
108 - 109 Force Peaks
Section
Q x
A 674 11.089
B 1193 10.924
C 2038 11.173
D 4208 11.105
E 6061 11.100
3V 728 12.464
5V 1654 12.593
8V 3638 12.629

The constants Kb and Kc can be found in the following table:

Section Kb Kc
A 220 0.561
B 576 0.965
C 1600 1.716
D 5680 3.498
E 10850 5.041
3V 230 0.425
5V 1098 1.217
8V 4830 3.288

Example 2: A 5V high-capacity V-belt carries a load horsepower of 15, but a service

factor of 1.5 must be used. Pulley diameters are 277mm and 381mm. Speed of the small
pulley is 1,750 rpm. Length of the belt is 2450mm. Find the centre distance and the
expected life of the belt.
Solution:
By Eq. (4.2): c 2  1   r1  r2 2  r2  r1 2  100  277
1
4
1
4 2

 381
2
2

 277
2
 
 381
2
2
c = 762mm
r r 52  0.068,  = 86
By Eq. (4.3): cos  2 1 
c 762
1.02463 86  
F1
By Eq. (4.7):  e1.02463   2.718 180  4.66
F2
By Eq. (4.9): V =  * 0.277  1,750  25.4 m/sec
60
By Eq. (4.8): Kw = F1  F2 V  F1  F2  65.3N.

81 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Therefore F1 = 843N.
From table Kb = 1,098, Kc = 1.217
By Eqs. (4.12) and (4.13):
2
 448N. and Tc  172 *10e 3 *1.217 25.4   135N.
1,098
Tb1  113
277  1,000 
1,098
Tb2  113  326N.
381
By Eq. (4.10): F1 = 843 + 448 + 135 = 1426 N.
By Eq. (4.11): F2 = 843 + 326+ 135 = 1304 N.
From Table:
For small pulley Q = 1,654, x = 12.593 (108-109 force peaks)
For large pulley Q = 2,394, x = 10.283 (109-1010 force peaks)
By Eq. (4.16):
x 12593
M1     168.2 *106 
Q 1,654 
  947,950,000 forcepeaks in small pulley
 1
F  1426 
x 10.283
M 2     168.2 *106 
Q 2,394 
  2,407,800,000 forcepeaks in large pulley
 2
F  1304 

By Eq. (4.15):
1  1  1
N  947 ,950 ,000 2,407 ,800 ,000
N  = 679,615,00 0 belt passes
By Eq. (4.14):

N1 679,615,000 2.45

L=   1.134 106 min. = 18,902hrs.  787.6 days beforefailure
12V 12  25.4

Example3: A 4 cylinder Diesel runs @ 1800 rpm with a 80hp (6Kw) output power, to
drive a water pump @1200 rpm for less than 6 hr./day. Find the total number of belts
needed and the life of the belt.

Given
- P = 80 hp= 60kw, n1=1200 rpm (driving) , n2=1800rpm
- Driving machine = 4 cylinder diesel engine
- Driven machine = water pump
- Operating period ≤ 6 hr/day
Solution:
Step 1: calculate the design power (DP
D P  S .F * Pin
from table 7.8,
S .F  1.1
D P  1.1 * 80hp  88hp  66kw
Step 2: Calculate the speed ratio
n2 1800 rpm
SR    1.5
n1 1200 rpm

82 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Step 3: Select belt type

for DP  66kw from Table11: select type C belt type with
d min  200mm  D2
Step 4: Calculate the velocity of the belt (Vb) (m/sec)
D2 n2  * 0.02m *1800rpm
Vb    18.84 m s
60 60
Step 5: Find the rated power from figure 44
with d min  0.2m  7.87 in and n2  1800 rpm
R p  19 hp
Step 6: Calculate the power added
From figure 45 with SR  1.5 PA  1.55 hp
Total power (hp/belt)  Ratedpower  power added to rated power
Total power (hp/belt)  19hp  1.55hp  20.55hp
Step 7: Estimate the center distance (Cesst)
D1  D2 SR  300 mm
D2  Cesst  3(D2  D1 )
200 mm  Cesst  3(500 mm)  let Cesst  1000 mm
Step 8: Find the non-actual belt length (Lna)
2 ( D2  D1 ) 2
Lna  2Cesst  ( D2  D1 ) 
 4Cesst
2 (100mm) 2
Lna  2 *1000 mm  (500 mm) 
 4 *1000 mm
Lna  2321mm
Step 9: Find the standard belt length (Lstandard) using Table 12
For Type C belt Lstandard=2342 mm
Step 10: Calculate actual centre distance
B  B 2  32( D2  D1 ) 2
Cact 
16
where, B  4 Ls tan dard  2 ( D2  D1 )
Cact  1092mm
Step 11: Find wrap angle, small pulley
 D2  D1 
 d  180  2 sin 1  
 2Cact 
 d 2  174.80

Step 12: Determine the correction factor ( C ) from figure 46

with  d 2  174.80 C  0.965
Step 13: Calculate the corrected power (hp)

83 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Corrected Power  1.2 * C * TP
Cp  1.2 * 0.965* 20.55hp  23.8 hp  17.8 kw
Step 14: Calculate the number of belts needed
Design Power (hp)
# belts 
Corrected Power/belt
Dp 88hp
# belts    3.69  4 belts
Cp 23.8hp
Step 15: Calculate the life
N ' Lact
L  13 *
12 Vb
1 1 1
 '
 
N M1 M 2
X
Q
 M 1  168.2 *10  
6
for type C belt Q  2038, X  11.173
 F1 
X
Q
 M 2  168.2 *10  
6

 F2 
 F1  T1  Tb1  Tc , F2  T2  Tb 2  Tc
17.8kw
but , Cp  (T1  T2 )vb  T1  T2   945 N
18.84 m s
T1 
and  e d  e 0.3*3.05  2.5  T1  2.5T2
T2
T2  630 N and T1  1.6kN

Kb 1600
 Tb1  113 *  113 *  904 N
d1 200 mm
Kb 1600
 Tb 2  113 *  113 *  602.67 N
d2 300 mm
2 2
 V   18.84 m s 
 Tc  172.82 * 10 * K c  b   172.82 * 10 3 * 1.716
3
  111.8 N
 1000   1000 
 F1  1.6 kN  904 N  111.8 N  2.62kN , F2  630 N  602.67 N  111.8 N  2.4kN
11.173
 2038 
 M 1  168.2 * 10 6    10,159,772 force peaks in the small pulley ,
 2620 
11.173
 2038 
M 2  168.2 * 10 6    27,068,493.6 force peaks in the l arg e pulley
 2400 
 N '  7387121 .6 belt passes
7387121 .6 * 2.342 m
 L  13 *  994818 sec  12 days (this means the belt will last
12 * 18.84 m s
12 days if the operating period is 24hrs )
Since the max imum operation period is 6hrs / day the belt will last
4 * 12days  48 days.......... ....( Ans )

84 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
4. POWER TRANSMITTING CHAINS
These chains are used for transmission of power, when the distance between the centers
of shafts is short. These chains have provision for efficient lubrication. The power
transmitting chains are of the following three types.
1. Block or bush chain. A block or bush chain is shown in Fig. 47. This type of
chain was used in the early stages of development in the power transmission.

Figure 42: Block or Bush chain

It produces noise when approaching or leaving the teeth of the sprocket because of
rubbing
between the teeth and the links. Such type of chains are used to some extent as conveyor
chain at small speed.
2. Bush roller chain. A bush roller chain as shown in Fig. 48, consists of outer
plates or pin link plates, inner plates or roller link plates, pins, bushes and rollers.
A pin passes through the bush which is secured in the holes of the roller between
the two sides of the chain. The rollers are free to rotate on the bush which protect
the sprocket wheel teeth against wear. The pins, bushes and rollers are made of
alloy steel.

Figure 43: Bush roller chain

A bush roller chain is extremely strong and simple in construction. It gives good
service under severe conditions. There is a little noise with this chain which is due
to impact of the rollers on the sprocket wheel teeth. This chain may be used where
there is a little lubrication. When one of these chains elongates slightly due to
wear and stretching of the parts, then the extended chain is of greater pitch than
the pitch of the sprocket wheel teeth. The rollers then fit unequally into the
cavities of the wheel. The result is that the total load falls on one teeth or on a few
teeth. The stretching of the parts increase wear of the surfaces of the roller and of
the sprocket wheel teeth.

85 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
3. Silent chain. A silent chain (also known as inverted tooth chain) is shown in
Fig.49.
It is designed to eliminate the evil effects caused by stretching and to produce
noiseless running. When the chain stretches and the pitch of the chain increases,
the links ride on the teeth of the sprocket wheel at a slightly increased radius. This
automatically corrects the small change in the pitch. There is no relative sliding
between the teeth of the inverted tooth chain and the sprocket wheel teeth. When
properly lubricated, this chain gives durable service and runs very smoothly and
quietly.

Figure 44: Silent chain

Table 13: Compression of different types of chains

Type of Speed Tension Application
Ration Pitch (mm) Life (hrs)
chain (m/s) capacity (KN) areas
General
15-100 12.5-500 mechanical
Bush engineering
Motorcycle
8-9.525 5-12
drives
Motorcycle
12.7 -15.857 7.5-20
drives
Agricultural
15.857-41.3 17.5-50
machineries
Bush - roller 25 8.1 15000 General
8-50 2-160 mechanical
engineering
Oil field
20-65 38-430
machinery
Bush-roller Drives
with bent 40-100 80-500 operating at
plates heavy duty
Main drives
Silent plate 32.5 12.1 15000 12.7-31.75 19-690 in various
machineries

86 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
5. BUSH ROLLER CHAINS

Chain drives are versatile, long-lasting, low maintenance and relatively economical.
When used with sprockets of different diameters, they can provide a large speed increase
or reduction. The most common drive chain is the roller chain. Details of construction
are shown in Fig.50.

Figure 45: Construction of typical roller chain

The chain is defined by the pitch ‘p’ of the chain

 It is the distance b/n adjacent pins (or the two centers of the chain)
 The sprockets (the “tooth” on which the chain rides) is defined in terms of the
number of teeth (N1, N2)
 C denotes the center distance as a multiple of the pitch ‘p’
 L is the length of the chain at the pitch line as a multiple of “p”

The fits in a roller chain are:

Pin and Pin link plate, Bushing and Roller link plate --- interference fit
Pin and Bushing, Bushing and Roller --- clearance fit

d 2 1 N 2
The speed ratio is: gr =  
d 1  2 N1
where N1 and N2 are the number of teeth of the smaller and larger sprockets respectively,
d is the diameter, and  is the angular velocity in rad/s.

5.1.Horsepower Capacity of Roller Chains

 Lower Speeds
At lower speeds, the horsepower capacity is determined by the fatigue life of the link
plates and is given by the empirical relation,
4.24
hp = CN11.08n10.9 p3.0-0.07p
87 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Where
C = 0.004 for general chain, C = 0.0022 for lightweight chain (No. 41)
N1 = number of teeth in the smaller sprocket
n1 = speed, rpm, of the smaller sprocket
p = chain pitch, inches

 Higher Speeds
At higher speeds the horsepower is determined by the roller bushing fatigue life. The
equation is

1,000KN 11.5 p 0.8

hp = 4.25
n11.5
where K = 29 for chains Nos. 25 and 35
= 3.4 for chain No. 41
= 17 for chains Nos. 42 to 240

Note: (a) In the design of a chain drive, both hp values of Eqs. 4.24 and 4.25 should be
considered and the smaller is selected.
(b) The actual available hp is obtained by reducing the smaller value by a
service factor which is dependent on the severity of the operation.

Table 14: Permissible chain speed, m/sec , for different types of lubrication

Number and Pitch of Chain, in.

Type* Chain No 25 35 40-41 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 240
Chain pitch (mm) 6.35 9.525 12.70 16.00 19.05 25.40 31.75 38.10 44.45 50.80 57.15 63.50 76.2
I 2.54 1.88 1.524 1.27 1.118 0.864 0.762 0.66 0.584 0.508 0.483 0.432 0.381
II 12.7 8.636 6.604 5.08 4.318 3.302 2.642 2.184 1.88 1.676 1.524 1.321 1.1176
III 17.78 14.22 11.68 10.16 9.144 7.62 6.604 6.096 5.588 5.08 4.826 4.572 4.064
IV Up to maximum permissible speed
*type I, Oil supplied periodically with brush or spoutcan
II, Drip lubrication. Oil applied between link plate edges from a drip lubricator
III, Oil bath or slinger. Oil level maintained in casing at predetermined height
IV, Oil stream. Oil supplied by circulating pump inside chain loop on lower strand

5.2. Roller chain guidelines and design considerations

a. Use service factor to account for the load intensity (similar to stress
concentration factors) from table 16:
Pdesign = SF x Input power
a. The minimum number of teeth in a sprocket should be 17 (unless speed < 100
rpm)
b. The larger sprocket should have a maximum of 120 teeth
c. Maximum reduction of 7:1
d. Centre distance should be 30-50 times pitch length
e. The angle of wrap of the smaller sprocket should be >120º

88 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Other Considerations in Designing Chain Drives
a. Manufacturer's catalogues give extensive information on the capacity of
various chains running on sprockets of various size and at various speeds.
b. Chains must be periodically cleaned and kept well lubricated. Permissible
chain speed is governed by the type of lubrication.
c. It is preferable to have an even number of pitches in a chain so that an offset
link as shown in Fig. 51 will not be required.
d. An undesirable feature of a chain drive is the vibration in chain speed as
shown in Fig. 52, the speed changes from: d1' 1 cos  to d1' 1
2 2 2
e. Galling is a serious problem in high speed chain operation.
f. The approximate length of a roller chain can be obtained from Eq. (4.28)

Figure 46: Offset link Figure 47: Variation of velocity

5.3. Chain Calculations

When a chain operates at higher speed the mass of the chain tries to pull away from the
sprocket, especially at the exit. The rise in the chain is termed chordal rise Δr.
  180  
r  r 1  cos    4.26
  N 
Relating this to the chain pitch:
pt  2r sin r 4.27
Where
r = sprocket pitch radius
θr = angle of rotation to give chordal rise, deg.

5.3.1. Centre distance

In general, a centre distance of 30 to 50 chain pitches is most desirable. The distance
between the sprocket centres should provide at least 120 deg. chain wrap on the smaller
sprocket.
5.3.2. Chain Length
The chain length can be calculated using the following formula.

L 2c d N 1  N 2 N 2  N 1 
2

  
pt pt 2 c  4.28
4 2  d 
where L = chain length  pt 
p = chain pitch

89 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

 Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
c = centre distance (obtained as for belts)
N1 = the number of teeth on small sprocket
N2 = the number of teeth on large sprocket

5.3.3. Chain Speed

Naturally, chain speed is the same around both sprockets:
N a1 D1 N a1 pt N
u  4.29
where
60 60
Na1 = speed of member 1, rpm
N = number of sprocket teeth

5.3.3. Chain Power Rating

Chains transfer power by using high force (high torque) and lower rpm than belts. Chains
can develop much higher forces than most belts, but cogged belts using carbon fibre
reinforcing can rival most light chains. However, both V-Belts and chains cannot share
multiple loads perfectly, thus the power transmitted is less than sum of equivalent single
chains.
hpr  hp a1a2
4.30
where
a1 = service factor (table 16)
a2 = multiple chain factor (table 15)
Table 15: Chain multiple strand factor
Number of Multiple Strand
Strands Factor
2 1.7
3 2.5
4 3.3
5.3.4. Chain dimensions
As discussed earlier a chain is represented by its pitch, below is the equations used to
calculate the dimensions of various parts of a chain.
- Roller diameter d = (5/8) *pitch
- Pin diameter dp = 5/16) *pitch
- Chain width bi = (5/8) *pitch
- Thickness of link plates t = (1/8)
*pitch
- Width between outer plates b0 =
bi + 2t
- Maximal height of roller link h
= 0.82*pitch
- Length of roller l = 0.9bi

90 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
5.3.5. Sprocket dimensions
Similar to a bushed roller chain, a
sprocket is also represented by the
pitch of the chain (sprocket)
- Root diameter Dr = Dp
–d
- Tooth flank radius R = p
- Tooth thickness for simple chain wheels t = 0.93b for
p < 12.7
- Tooth thickness for duplex and triplex chain wheels
t = 0.91b
- Tooth thickness for quardplex chain wheels and above t = 0.88b
- t1 = (number of chain strands –1)*pt + t
- Transverse pitch of strands (strands spacing) – standard pt =5.64mm to
91.27mm

5.3.6. Roller chain design steps

Follow these steps to fully design a roller chain
1st.Compute design power: Pdesign = SF x Input power
Table 16: Roller chain service factor
Driver type
Internal
Driven machine type
Hydraulic Electric Motor or Combustion
(operation)
Drive Turbine Engine with
Mechanical Drive
Smooth (Agitators, fans, light
1 1 1.2
uniformly loaded conveyors)
Moderate shock (machine
tools cranes, heavy conveyors, 1.2 1.3 1.4
food mixers, and grinders)
Heavy shock (Punch presses,
hammer mills, reciprocating 1.4 1.5 1.7
conveyors, rolling mill drive)
𝑹𝒑𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 (𝝎𝟏) 𝑫𝟐
2nd. Calculate the speed ratio: SR = =
𝑹𝒑𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 (𝝎𝟐) 𝑫𝟏
3rd. Using table 17 select sprocket teeth no
Table 17: Number of teeth on the smaller sprocket
Type of chain Number of teeth at velocity ration
1 2 3 4 5 6
Roller 31 27 25 23 21 17
Silent 40 35 31 27 23 19
4th. Using table 18 select the type of roller chain and its corresponding power
rating (the power that the selected roller chain can handle)

91 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Table 18: Power ratings of different sizes of roller chains
Speed of the Power rating (Kw)
smaller sprocket ISO Chain number
(rpm) 06B 08B 10B 12B 16B
100 0.25 0.64 1.18 2.01 4.83
200 0.47 1.18 2.19 3.75 8.94
300 0.61 1.70 3.15 5.43 13.06
500 1.09 2.72 5.01 8.53 20.57
700 1.48 3.66 6.71 11.63 27.73
1000 2.03 5.09 8.97 15.65 34.89
1400 2.73 6.81 11.67 18.15 98.47
1800 3.44 8.10 13.03 19.85 -
2000 3.80 8.67 13.49 20.57 -
5th. Using table 19select the minimum recommended pitch of the roller chain
Table 19: Characteristics of roller chains
ISO Pitch Maximum Maximum Transverse Braking load (KN)
Chain (p) mm roller width b/n pitch (p1) Simple Duplex Triplex
No. diameter inner mm
(d1) mm plates (b1)
05B 8 5.00 3.00 5.64 4.4 7.8 11.1
06B 9.525 6.35 5.72 10.24 8.9 16.9 24.9
08B 12.7 8.51 7.75 13.92 17.8 31.1 44.5
10B 15.875 10.16 9.65 16.59 22.2 44.5 66.5
12B 19.05 12.07 11.68 19.46 28.9 57.8 86.7
16B 25.4 15.88 17.02 31.88 42.3 84.5 126.8
20B 31.75 16.05 19.56 36.45 64.5 129 193.5
24B 38.1 25.4 25.40 48.36 97.9 195.7 293.6
28B 44.45 27.94 30.99 59.56 129 258 387
32B 50.80 29.21 30.99 68.55 169 338 507.1
40B 63.5 39.37 38.10 72.29 262.4 524.9 787.3
48B 76.2 48.26 45.72 91.21 400.3 800.7 1201
6th. Calculate the pitch diameter of both sprockets

7th. Specify the center distance with the recommended range ≈ (30-50) p
8th. Compute the required chain length with ‘C’ from step 7
N 2  N1 p 2 ( N 2  N1 ) 2
L  2C  p 
2 4 2C
9th. Calculate the wrap (contact) angle and check if θ1>1200
( D2  D1 ) ( D2  D1 )
1  1800  2 sin 1 ,  2  1800  2 sin 1
2C 2C
10th. Calculate the bearing pressure Pb and check if : pb <= 35N/mm2 for n <
50 Rpm
pb <= 13.7 N/mm2 for 50< n <2800

92 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

 Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
DPka3
Pb  3
Where, p N1 x
DP – Design power (kW), K (load factor) = 1-1.7, N – number of
teeth ω – angular velocity of the driving sprocket (rad/sec)
x – Number of chain strands, pb – the allowable bearing pressure
a - 28, for bushed and roller chain
11th. Calculate the number of chain needed
DP
No of chain 
Where DP – Design power RP
RP – Rating power
12th. Calculate the dimensions of the roller chain and sprocket.

Example 4:
Design a chain drive for motorcycle having a two stroke IC engine having a power of
10Kw rotating at 1000 rpm smaller sprocket and 500 rpm on the largest sprocket
driving a rubber wheel with a moderate shock.
Given
- P = 80 hp= 10kw, n1=1000 rpm (driving) , n2=500rpm
- Driving machine = 2 stroke petrol engine
- Driven machine = rubber wheel with moderate shock
Solution:
Step 1: calculate the design power (DP
D P  S .F * Pin
from table 16,
S .F  1.4
Step 2:  1.4 *10the
D PCalculate  14kw
kWspeed ratio:
𝑹𝒑𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 (𝑵𝟏) 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒓𝒑𝒎
SR = = =𝟐
𝑹𝒑𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 (𝑵𝟐) 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒓𝒑𝒎
Step 3: Select sprocket teeth no
From table 17 for SR=2 the number of teeth on the smaller sprocket is 27
Step 4: Select the type of roller chain from table 18
For n=1000rpm, select a chain type of 12B with power rating of
PR=15.65kW
Step 5: Using table 19 select the minimum recommended pitch of the roller chain
p=19.05mm, roller dia (d1) =12.07mm width=11.68mm
Step 6: Calculate D1 and D2

D1  p  166mm
0
sin(180 )
N1
similarlly D2  332mm
Step 7: Estimate the center distance
C  40 * p  40 *19.05mm  762mm
Step 8: Calculate the length of the chain

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N  N1 p 2 ( N 2  N1 ) 2
L  2C  p 2 
2 4 2C
L=2305mm
Step 9: Calculate the angle of contact
(D  D ) (D  D )
1  1800  2 sin 1 2 1 ,  2  1800  2 sin 1 2 1
2C 2C
1  1670 ,  2  192.50 sin ce 1  1200
Step 10: Calculate the bearing pressure Pb and check if : pb <= 35N/mm2 for n < 50 Rpm
pb <= 13.7 N/mm2 for 50< n <2800
DPka3
Pb 
p 3 N1 x
2n1
  104.5 rad sec
60
L 2305mm
x   121strands
p 19.05mm
Pb  0.68 Mpa which is safe
Step 11: Calculate the number of chain needed
DP
No of chain 
RP
DP
No. of chain  0.74  1chainis nedded
RP
Step 12: Try it yourself

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
6. WIRE ROPES
Elevators, cranes and other lifting equipment often use wire cable. It is important to
realise wire rope will wear in service, thus large safety factors are required by the
Provincial Workplace Safety and Health codes.

6.1. Stresses and Loading

Total rope tension Ft is made up of three components; the weight being supported Fw, the
force due to acceleration Fa, and the weight of the rope length unwound from the driver
Fr. Thus:
Ft  Fw  Fa  Fr 4.19
Cable stress:
F
t  t 4.20
Am
Where Am is the cable cross-sectional area. The safety factor is based on the stress σt:
 all
ns  4.21
t
6.1.1. Bending Stress

As a cable winds on a drum, the cable develops bending stresses. Because the cable is
made of many strands, the usual Mc

I
Is not very accurate. The relationship usually used is:
Ed w
b  4.22
D
Where
E = elastic modulus
dw = cable diameter
D = pulley (drum) diameter

The smallest pulley in the system should be used

6.1.2. Fatigue

The usual failure of cable is due to fatigue. The total force Ft must be less than the force
Ff based on the endurance stress in tension compression. The usual formula used is:
Su dD
Ff  4.23
2000

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
PROBLEMS

1. A belt drive incorporates a small pulley of 100 mm diameter and a belt whose length
is 1100 mm. For speed ratios of (a) 1.5:1 (b) 2:1 (c) 3.15:1, calculate the theoretical
shaft center distance and angle of wrap on the small pulley.[ 353, 310, 193 mm]
2. (a) Use the belt property table to calculate the basic rating of an A-section V-belt with
two 100 mm diameter pulleys rotating at 4200 rpm. [3.07kW] (b) If the pitch length
of the above belt is 3080 mm, what then is the rating and what is the corresponding
power correction factor for pitch length? [3.50kW,1.14] (c) If the drive in (a) is
required to last for only 10 kh, by what percentage is the above capacity increased?[
24%]
3. Plot rating versus belt speed, similar to the above rating curves, for an A-section belt.
Use pulley diameters of 75, 132, 250, 500 and 1000 mm. Superimpose upon this,
trajectories of constant effectiveness: 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%. Comment upon the
effect of pulley diameter on rating as the diameter increases.
4. A V-belt drive employs a single B belt of length 2300 mm, together with 200 and 400
mm diameter pulleys. The smaller pulley rotates at 1440 rpm.
(a) What is the capacity of this drive using the Code method? [6.04 kW]
(b) What is the life of the drive when transmitting 6.04 kW? [31 kh]
(c) Repeat (a), but use (5a) with the standard life of 26 kh. [6.19 kW]
(d) Check this last result using the program V-belts. (e) A multi-strand drive,
otherwise identical to the above, is required to transmit 12 kW with a duty factor of
1.3. Use (5a) to determine the number of belts required. [2.5]
(f) What life may be expected, if 2, or if 3 belts are used? [5, 82 kh]
5. A motor of power 2 kW running at a speed of 1400 rpm transmits power to an air blower
running at 560 rpm. The motor pulley diameter is 200 mm. The center distance may be 1000
mm. Design a suitable V-belt drive.
6. Design a V-belt drive to the following specifications: Power to be transmitted = 75 kW;
Speed of driving wheel = 1440 rpm; Speed of driven wheel = 400 rpm; Diameter of driving
wheel = 300 mm; Center distance = 2500 mm; Service = 16 hours/day
7. Two 1750 mm long A-section belts are incorporated into the drive whose layout is
sketched. The wrap angle on the 150 mm diameter motor pulley
(1) is 118o and the pulley rotates at 2880 rpm. The 400 mm
diameter driven pulley (2) absorbs the design power of 10 kW.
Pulley (3), of 80 mm diameter, is an idler and absorbs no
appreciable power. Estimate the life of the belts if . . ..
(a) The pulleys rotate clockwise, or
(b) They rotate counterclockwise, or
(c) The idler is removed and the center distance between (1) and (2) increased
accordingly, [6, 0.6, 14 kh]
8. A 7.5 kW 1445 rpm motor, started direct-on-line, is required to drive a machine tool
at a speed of around 860 to 870 rpm. Duty is expected to be 7 hr/day, 5 days/week, 49
weeks/year with 4 years between belt replacements. The center distance should lie
within the range 280 to 320mm. select a drive for this duty.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
9. A blower absorbs 3.5 kW at its design speed of 650 rpm, and is equipped with a 260
mm diameter, 90 mm wide flat pulley. It is proposed to drive it by a pivoted motor, V-
flat arrangement. Select a squirrel cage motor and finalize the drive, including pivot
location.
10. Design a chain drive to actuate a compressor from a 10 kW electric motor at 960 rpm.
The compressor speed is to be 350 rpm. Minimum center distance should be 0.5 m.
Compressor is to work for 8 hours/day.
11. Design a chain drive to actuate a compressor from a 10 kW electric motor. Speed of the motor
shaft is 1050 rpm and the compressor speed is to be 350 rpm. Minimum center distance
should be 600 mm. Compressor service required is 12 hours/day.
12. A workshop crane carries a load of 30 kN using wire ropes and a hook. The hook
weighs 15 kN. Diameter of the rope drum is 30 times the diameter of the rope. The
load is lifted with an acceleration of 1 m/s2. Find the diameter of the rope. Fs = 6;σU =
180 kN/mm2; cross section of the rope = 0.4 x (dia of rope) 2.
13. Design a chain drive to drive a centrifugal compressor from an electric motor 15 kW at 1000
rpm.The speed reduction ratio required is 2.5. The compressor is to work for 16 hours a day.
State solutions for common problems encountered in continuous operation of the drive.
14. A truck equipped with a 9.5 kW engine uses a roller chain as the find drive to the rear axle.
The driving sprocket runs at 900 rpm and the driven sprocket at 400 rpm with a center
distance of approximately 600 mm. select the roller chain.
15. Design a chain drive for motorcycle having a two stroke IC engine having a power of
15Kw rotating at 1500 rpm smaller sprocket and 750 rpm on the largest sprocket
driving a rubber wheel with a moderate shock.

Fig eg: 15

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

CHAPTER FIVE
DESIGN AND SELECTION OF
ANTI-FRICTION ROLLER
BEARINGS

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Nomenclature
C = radial bearing load, N
C = specific dynamic capcity, N
dm = pitch diameter of ball races, dm = (doutside + dbore)/2
D = ball diameter
D = material factor
E = metallurgical processing factor
fc = a constant, determined by D cos/dm table to be provided
Fl = lubrication factor
G = speed effect factor
H m = misalignment factor
i = number of rows of balls in a bearing
L = life in millions of cycles
Lc = the life of the bearing under the combined loading
Li = the expected life at load Pi
Lf = load factor
LA = adjusted life in millions of cycles
L hours = life in hours
mk = load life exponent (3 for ball, 10/3 for roller)
Nb = rotational speed of a shaft, rpm
P = normal applied load, N / equivalent dynamic load, N
P = bearing equivalent load, N
Pa = axial component of load, N
Pr = radial component of load, N
V = rotation factor (V = 1 when the inner ring rotates and V = 1.2 when the outer
ring rotates)
X = radial factor
X0 = radial factor for static loading
Y = thrust (axial) factor
Y0 = thrust factor for static loading
Z = number of balls per row
αr = load angle, deg
 = the angle between ball load and plane perpendicular to bearing axis

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
DESIGN OF ANTI-FRICTION ROLLER BEARINGS

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

 Types of bearings
 Basics definitions of design parameters of rolling contact bearings
 Selection method for rolling contact bearings
 Comparison of bearing friction characteristics
 Basics of hydrodynamic theory of lubrication
 Design methods for journal bearings

INTRODUCTION
A bearing is a mechanical element that limits relative motion to only the desired motion
and at the same time it reduces the frictional resistance to the desired motion. Depending
on the design of the bearing, it may allow free rotation around a fixed axis (such as the
case of shafts) or free linear movement, or both in some cases.

Bearings are used to support shafts and they are designed such that they can support
radial load or thrust load or combination of both. However, they are not supposed to be
subjected to bending moment where that will shorten their life significantly. For this
reason, always, a minimum of two bearings spaced apart from each other are needed to
support any shaft (if the shaft is short, a single double row bearing can be used).

When rolling bearings are to be used in a mechanical system, the mechanical designer
does not design the bearing but rather he/she selects a bearing according to the design
requirements at hand (loads it will support, desired life, speed, available space, etc.).
Bearings may be classified according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to
the directions of the loads applied to the parts. The broadest classification of bearings is
according to the type of operation where they are classified in two groups;
A. Rolling-contact bearings
B. Fluid film bearings

1. ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS

Rolling-contact bearings, also called “rolling bearings”
or “antifriction bearings”, have rolling elements (balls or
rollers) that supports the loads and allow connected parts
to move freely in the desired direction. Unlike sliding-
contact bearings, rolling bearings have very small
frictional resistance at both starting and running
conditions (the starting friction is about twice the running
friction).
In general, rolling-contact bearings consist of four main
parts (as seen in the figure above);
- Inner ring
- Outer ring
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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
- Balls or Rollers
- Separator (also called retainer or cage)
Anti-friction bearings are, perhaps, the most important of the standardized machine
elements. Their applications in modern technology are almost without limit. In North
America the standards are given by AFBMA (Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers
Association).
- Advantages --- small friction, high efficiency, easy lubrication.
- Disadvantages --- noisy in high speed, low resistivity to shock loading.
The most common failure in anti-friction bearings is by fatigue. Hence, the primary
concern of an engineer is to select bearings which will have the required fatigue life.

Types of Rolling Contact Bearings

Rolling-contact bearings are divided in two main groups according to the type of rolling
elements used in the bearing:
1. Ball bearings
2. Roller bearings
1. Ball bearings: are the most commonly used type because they are more versatile and,
in general, they can support both radial and thrust loads. In ball bearings in general,
the rolling elements are spheres of high quality, hardened and polished alloy steel,
rolling in hardened alloy steel inner and outer rings or races. The most common types
of ball bearings are shown in the figure:
a) Deep groove bearing: it takes radial and some thrust load.
b) Filling notch bearing: it has more balls. It takes more radial load, but very little
thrust.
c) Angular contact bearing: it takes more thrust than deep groove bearings
because of the added support in the axial direction, but thrust should be applied
in one direction.
d) Shielded bearing: it has protection shields that prevent dirt and foreign particles
from entering inside the bearing.
e) Sealed bearing: it has seals that prevent lubricant from going out of the bearing
and dirt or any liquid from entering inside the bearing.
f) Self-aligning bearing: it can withstand high shaft misalignments.
g) Double row bearing: it takes twice the load of single row, but with less parts
and space than two bearings.
h) Thrust bearing: it takes thrust load only (no radial load).
i) Self-aligning thrust bearing: it takes thrust load only and can withstand high
shaft 4misalignments.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Figure 48: Types of ball bearings

2. Roller bearings: are generally capable of supporting higher loads than ball
bearings of similar size because of the larger contact area of the rollers. Roller
bearings need more perfect geometry and heavier cages to retain the rollers in
position. The most common types of roller bearings are shown in the figure 54:
a) Straight roller bearing: it takes high radial load, but does not take thrust
load.
b) Spherical-roller thrust bearing: it takes both radial and thrust loads and it is
useful when heavy loads & misalignments occur.
c) Thrust bearing: it takes thrust load only.
Why do you think rollers are tapered rollers are tapered?
d) Needle bearing: It is somehow similar to straight roller bearing but it is
more useful when radial space is limited.
e) Tapered-roller bearing: it takes both radial & thrust loads (higher loads
than angular contact ball bearings).

Figure 49: Types of roller bearings

The table gives the major characteristics for some of the most common types of bearings.
Such tables (usually provided by bearing manufacturers) provide guidance for selecting
the appropriate type of bearing for different types of applications.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Table 20: Major characteristics for some of the most common types of bearings
Bearing types
Deep Angul Self- Trust Trust Cylindric Spheric Needle Taper
grove ar alignin ball ball al roller al roller ed
ball contac g ball bearin bearin bearings roller bearin roller
Characterist bearing t ball bearin gs gs trust gs beari
ics s bearin gs With bearing ng
gs seating s
ring

Load
carrying
capacity

High speed ♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦ ♦♦♦♦ ♦ ♦♦♦ ♦♦♦

High ♦♦♦ ♦♦♦ ♦ ♦♦♦ ♦♦♦
rotating
accuracy
Low ♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦ ♦ ♦
noise/vibrati
on
Low friction ♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦ ♦ ♦
torque
High rigidity ♦♦♦ ♦♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦

2. ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS DESIGNATION AND SELECTION

Rolling bearings are standardized in terms of geometry by organizations such as ISO and
ABMA (American Bearing Manufacturers Association). Bearing manufacturers (such as
SKF, Timken, FAG, NSK, NTN, Koyo, etc.) produce very wide variety of bearing types
and sizes and they list their products in catalogues.
- The three major dimensions used for identifying the size of a bearing are the bore
diameter, the outer diameter and the width.
- The bore diameter is the most important geometric parameter in selecting a
bearing where it will determine if it will fit the shaft or not.
- According to ISO and ABMA standards, the size of a bearing is identified using
its bore diameter and a “dimension-series code”.
- The dimension-series code is a two-digit number used to identify the boundary
dimensions of a bearing where the first digit refers to the width and the second
digit refers to the height (the difference between the outer and inner radius) , as
shown in the figure below.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

- A bearing is designated using its type, dimension series and bore diameter.
For example: 02-30 (or 0230) means 02 series bearing with 30 mm bore
diameter.
- For the same bore diameter, there will be different sizes of bearings belonging to
different dimension series;

Example: 32-20 Angular Contact bearing →bore=20, OD=47, width=20.6

22-20 Angular Contact bearing →bore=20, OD=47, width=18
23-20 Angular Contact bearing →bore=20, OD=52, width=21
- Different designation systems are used for thrust bearings, tapered roller bearings,
needle bearings, and instrument precision bearings. All the different designation
systems list the bore diameter along with other numerical or alphabetic dimension
codes.
- The table shows an example of a catalogue page for one of the bearing
manufacturers where it shows the dimensions and load ratings for two types of
ball bearings (02-series).

2.1. Design Load

The first calculation is to determine the equivalent static load P0. Next, the equivalent
dynamic load P is calculated. A bearing of the desired type can then be chosen from the
tables given by the manufacturer. Note that the dynamic load rating in the table is for a
bearing life of 106 cycles. Under that load, ninety percent of the bearings selected should
last 106 cycles. Bearing life rises as load is reduced. The failure relationships are covered
in the next section.

2.2. Bearing Loading

When selecting a bearing, two loading situations must be considered. The static load and
the dynamic load. The static load rating is lower than the dynamic or operating load. If
the static load is too high, the ball or roller permanently deforms the race. The bearing
then gets noisy as the rotating balls click over the pits in the race. Failure soon follows.
Therefore, the first factor to consider when selecting a bearing is the static capacity.

2.2.1. Equivalent Static Loading

If a bearing has a loading which is slightly off radial by an angle of α, then the radial load
is: Pr  P cos 
And the axial load is:
Pa  P sin 

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Since any axial load decreases the bearing life and equivalent static load ( P0 ) is:
P0  X 0 Pr  Y0 Pa 5.1
Where X0 and Y0 are constants associated with that particular bearing. A table of values is
given below.
Table 21: Static equivalent load
Contact Single DT DB or DF
Angle X0 Y0 X0 Y0
15 0.5 0.46 1 0.92
18 0.5 0.42 1 0.84
25 0.5 0.38 1 0.76
30 0.5 0.33 1 0.66
40 0.5 0.26 1 0.52

2.2.2. Equivalent Dynamic Load

A roller bearing is capable of resisting radial loading and a thrust loading. Furthermore,
these can be combined. Consider Fa and Fr to be the axial thrust and radial loads,
respectively, and FD to be the equivalent radial load that does the same damage as the
combined radial and thrust loads together. A rotation factor V is defined such that V=1
when the inner ring rotates and V=1.2 when the outer ring rotates. So the equivalent
radial and axial load can be calculated as
Pr  P cos r and Pa  P sin a
Then the equivalent dynamic load is:
FD  L f ( X VPr  Y Pa ) 5.2

Table 22: Load factor (Lf)

Type of application Load factor
Precision gearing 1.1
Commercial gearing 1.3
Applications with poor bearing seals 1.2
Applications with no impact 1.2
Machineries with light impact 1.5
Machineries with moderate impact 3

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 Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Table 23: Factors V, X and Y for radial bearings

In relation to the Single row
Double row bearing
load inner ring is bearing
Bearing types
Rotating stationary Fa/VFr > e Fa/VFr ≤ e Fa/VFr > e
e
Y V X Y X Y X Y
Fa/C Fa/
o ZD2
0.014 25
Radial 0.028 2.3 2.3 0.19
50
1.99 1.99 0.22
contact 0.056 100
1.71 1.71 0.26
Deep 0.084 150
1.55 1.55 0.28
grove 0.11 200
1 1.2 0.56 1.45 1 0 0.56 1.45 0.30
ball 0.17 300
1.31 1.34 0.34
bearings 0.28 500
1.15 1.15 0.38
0.42 750
1.04 1.04 0.42
0.56 100
1.00 1.0 0.44
0
200 0.43 1.00 1.09 0.70 1.63 0.57
250 0.41 0.87 0.92 0.67 1.44 0.68
Angular
300 1 1.2 0.39 0.76 1 0.78 0.63 1.24 0.80
contact
350 0.37 0.66 0.66 0.6 1.07 0.95
400 0.35 0.57 0.55 0.57 0.93 1.14
Self-aligning ball 0.4 0.42 0.65 1.5
1 1 0.4 1 0.65
Bearings cot α cot α cot α tan α
Self-aligning and
0.4 0.45 0.67 1.5
tapered roller 1 1.2 0.4 1 0.67
cot α cot α cot α tan α
bearings
If Fa/VFr ≤ e then X=1 and Y=0

2.3. Load ratings and bearing life

2.3.1. Load ratings
The load ratings in this module are based on ANSI/ABMA. These standards specify the
accepted methods for calculating load ratings and fatigue life of ball and cylindrical roller
bearings. Since a multitude of variables may affect these calculations, they should be used
for base line estimates only. Load ratings for your application’s specific operating
conditions should be calculated before making a final bearing choice.

i. Basic Dynamic Load Rating (C10)

The Basic Load Rating (C) for a radial or angular contact ball bearing is a calculated
constant radial load which a bearing with a stationary outer ring can theoretically endure
for a rating life of 1,000,000 revolutions of the inner ring.

ii. Basic static Load Rating (Co)

A static load is a load acting on a nonrotating bearing. Experience shows that a total
permanent deformation of 0.0001 of the rolling element diameter, at the centre of the

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
most heavily loaded rolling element/raceway contact, can be tolerated in most bearing
applications without the bearing operation being impaired. The basic static load rating is,
therefore, that load which produces the above deformation.
Empirically it can be calculated by:
Co  f s Po
Where: f s is permissible static load factor
P0 is equivalent static load
Table 24: Values of Permissible Static Load Factor fs
Lower limit of fs
Operating conditions
Ball bearings Roller bearings
Low-noise applications 2.0 3.0
Bearings subjected to vibration
1.5 2.0
and shock loads
Standard operating conditions 1.0 1.5

2.3.2. Bearing life

Rolling-contact bearings have limited life where the life of a bearing is measured in
number of revolutions (or in hours) of the inner ring at a fixed speed. The life of a bearing
depends on the load applied to the bearing as well as its operation conditions.
Bearing manufacturers give the load rating of their bearings at a given life referred as the
rating life (usually 1 million revolutions).

In order for bearings to achieve their theoretical life they

should be working under reasonable operational
conditions. Bearings should be clean, lubricated, sealed
against dust, not subjected to high shock and vibration
loads and operating at a reasonable temperature.
Even if the operating conditions are ideal, bearings will eventually fail due to the fatigue
contact stresses developed between the balls (or rollers) and the rings race surfaces.
The most common type of surface fatigue damage occurring in bearings is called
"spalling" where small chips of the ring race surface start peeling off, as seen in the
figure, and that can be detected by the increased noise and vibration.

The load capacity of a bearing is obviously affected by many things. The factors are:
1. Size of rolling elements (big is better)
2. Number of rolling elements (more is better)
3. Number of rows of rolling elements
4. Conformity between race and rollers
5. Contact angle under load
6. Material properties
7. Lubricant
8. Operating temperature
9. Operating speed

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Factors 1 to 5 are incorporated in the life formula:
a
C 
L  a1 a 2  
P 5.3
Where L = life in millions of revolutions
C = basic dynamic calibration load
P = bearing equivalent load
a = load life exponent; 3 for ball bearings or 10/3 for roller bearings
a1a2 = reliability adjustment factor and material adjustment factor respectively
(table 25 and 26)
Table 25: Life adjustment factor
Reliability Rating life Life adjustment factor
90 L10 1.00
95 L5 0.62
96 L4 0.53
97 L3 0.44
98 L2 0.33
99 L1 0.21

Table 26: Material adjustment factor

Material Material adjustment Factor
M50 nil 20
M50 10
52100 vim/var 7
52100 cevm 5
Bg42 3
52100 1
440c 0.8
Obviously 10 6  L
L hours  5.4
60 N b
Where
L hours = life in hours Nb = rpm of the shaft

2.3.3. Life parameters

Rating Life: L10 life, is defined by the AFBMA. It is the number of revolutions or
hours at some constant speed that 90% of identical bearings tested under
identical conditions will survive without noticeable fatigue damage.
Median Life: L50 life, is the number of revolutions or hours at some constant speed that
50% of identical bearings tested under identical conditions will survive
without noticeable fatigue damage. L50  5L10.
Basic dynamic Rating Load: C10, is the radial bearing load which will give a rating life,
L10, of one million revolutions. Bearing manufacturers supply C values
and the designer will select a bearing from the manufacturer’s catalogue
using equation 4.11 (see Shegly’s mechanical engineering design for
Timken’s standardized table for selection)

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Figure 50: Life parameters of rolling contact bearings

A group of identical bearings will have a rating life L1 (revolutions) for a radial load P1
and a rating life L2 (revolutions) for a radial load P2, experiments show that
k
L1  P1  0.33, for ball bearings
   , k =  5.6
L 2  P2  3.33, for roller bearings
Thus, for ball bearings
L1P 0.33  L 2 P 0.33  L 3P 0.33  ... = L10 C10 0.33
1 2 3
5.7
2.3.4. Bearing reliability
The desired load is not the manufacturer’s test load or catalog entry. The desired speed is
different from the vendor’s test speed, and the reliability expectation is typically much
higher than the 0.90 accompanying the catalog entry. The catalog information is plotted
as point A, whose coordinates are (the logs of) C10 and x10 = L10/L10 =1, a point on the
0.90 reliability contour. The design point is at D, with the coordinates (the logs of) FD and
xD, a point that is on the R = RD reliability contour. The designer must move from point D
to point A via point B as follows. Along a constant reliability contour (B D), Eq. 5.6
applies:
FB x B1/ k  FD x D1/ k
From which
 x 1/ k 
FB  FD  D 
 x 1/ k  (a)
 B 

Along a constant load line (AB), the desired reliability can be calculated as:
b
  x  xo  
R D  exp    B  
    xo  
109 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Solving for xb 1
 1 b
x B  xo  (  xo)  ln 
 RD  (b)
Substituting equation (b) in to equation (a)
1/ k
 
 
 
 xD 
FB  FD  
 1 
  1 b 
 xo  (  xo)  ln  
Since, FB  C10   RD  
1/ k
 
 
 
 LD nD / LR nR 
C10  FD   for RD  90%
 1 
  1 b 
 xo  (  xo)  ln  
  RD  

For simplicity x D  LD n D / LR n R , Xo=0.2,   xo =4.4339 and b=1.1483

3. SELECTION OF BEARINGS FOR VARIABLE LOADINGS

If a bearing of a given rating load C is subjected to a variable load cycle, its fatigue life
can be predicted by using Miner’s Rule of linear cumulative damage, that is, fatigue
failure will occur when the sum of the factions of linear damage at each load level equals
unity, or
n
N1 N 2 N
+  ... = 1, or  i  1 5.8
L1 L2 i=1 L i

or 1 2 1 n
 1
+  ... = , or  i  5.9
L1 L2 Lc i=1 Li Lc
n

Lc , and 
Ni
i  i  1
Where i=1

Lc = the life of the bearing under the combined loading

Li = the expected life at load Pi, that is Eq. 5.7
Eqs. 5.8 and 5.9 can be expressed in terms of load Pi and C for ball bearings by
substituting Eq. 5.7, that is, 1
L C K
L  10 10
i 1
PK
then 1 i 1 1
n 1 n L C K
6 5.10
 Ni PiK  10 C10 K , or   i PiK  10 10
i =1 i =1 L
c
We can simplify equation 5.10 as
L C k 5.11
10 10
L 
F k
D
L  60 LD n D 5.12

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Solving for C10

 L 
C 10  FD   for RD  90%
 L10 

Where L is the life of the bearing in millions of revolution

L10 is the rating life usually10 6
for ballbearings. 60*106 for rollerbearings
C10 is the basic dynamic load rating (catalogue)
n D is the desired speed of the shaft (rpm)
L D is the desired life of the bearing in hrs
FD is the design radial load

4. BEARING LIFE SUGGESTION

Use the following table for an initial life assumption of a rolling contact bearing. Know
that this life suggestions (assumptions) listed on the table are the desired life that you will
put in the calculating the basic dynamic load rating (C10) for bearing selection from
catalogue.
Table: Bearing life suggestion
Type of Application Life, kh
Instruments and apparatus for infrequent use Up to 0.5
Aircraft engines 0.5-2
Machine for short or intermittent operation where service
4–8
interruption is of minor importance
Machine for intermittent service where reliable operation is of
8–14
great importance
Machines for 8h service that are not always fully utilized 14-20
Machines for 8h service that are fully utilized 20-30
Machines for continuous 24h service 50-60
Machines for continuous 24h service where reliability is of
100-200
extreme importance

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Example 1
The shaft depicted in Fig.eg1 carries a helical gear with a tangential force of 3980 N, a
separating force of 1770 N, and a thrust force of 1690 N at the pitch cylinder with
directions shown. The pitch diameter of the gear is 200 mm. The shaft runs at a speed of
1050 rev/min, and the span (effective spread) between the direct-mount bearings is 150
mm. The design life is to be 5000 h and an application factor of 1 is appropriate. The
reliability of the bearing set is to be 0.99, select suitable single-row Angular contact
bearing.

Fig.eg1
The reactions in the xz plane are

The reactions in the xy plane from figure c are

The radial loads Fr A and Fr B are the vector additions of Ry A and Rz A, and Ry B and
RzB, respectively:

The equivalent dynamic load is:

For bearing A:
FD A  L f ( X VFrA  Y FaA )
FD A  1(1.2 * 2170 N  1*1690 N )  4294 N
For bearing B:
FD B  L f ( X VFrB  Y FB)
FD A  1(1.2 * 2654 N  1 * 0 N )  3185 N

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1/ 3
For Bearing at A:  
1/ k  
   
   
   
5000 h *1050 rpm /(106 / 60)
 3185 N  
LD nD / LR nR
C10  FDA    36 KN
 1   1 
  1 b    1.483 
 xo  (  xo)  ln    0.02  4.439  ln 1  
  RD     0.99  
   
From Appendix 5 select an angular contact bearing with a pressed cage of Cr = C10 =
39.6KN with bore diameter of 25mm, outside diameter of 80mm and a face width of
21mm.
1/ 3
For Bearing at B:  
1/ k  
   
   
   
5000 h *1050 rpm /(106 / 60)
 4294 N  
LD nD / LR nR
C10  FDA    48.4 KN
 1   1 
  1 b    1.483 
 xo  (  xo)  ln    0.02  4.439  ln 1  
  RD     0.99  
   
From Appendix 5 select an angular contact bearing with a pressed cage of Cr = C10 =
51KN with bore diameter of 30mm, outside diameter of 90mm and a face width of
23mm.

5. LUBRICATION OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

The purposes of an anti-friction bearing lubricant may be summarised as follows:
(1) To provide a film of lubricant between the sliding and rolling surfaces
(2) To help distribution and dissipate heat
(3) To prevent corrosion of the bearing surfaces
(4) To protect the parts from the entrance of foreign matter
Either oil or grease may be employed as a lubricant. The following rules (Table 27) may
help in deciding between them.
Table 27: Rules in selection of lubricants

USE GREASE WHEN USE OIL WHEN

1. The temperature is not over 200ºF. 1. Speeds are high.

2. The speed is low. 2. Temperatures are high.
3. Unusual protection is required from 3. Oil tight seals are readily employed.
the entrance of foreign matter. 4. Bearing type is not suitable for grease
4. Simple bearing enclosures are desired. lubrication.
5. Operation for long periods without 5. The bearing is lubricated from a central
attention is desired. supply which is also used for other
machine parts.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
6. FLUID FILM BEARINGS
In fluid film bearing the entire load of the shaft is carried by a thin film of fluid present
between the rotating and non-rotating elements.
The types of fluid film bearings are as follows:
1. Journal bearing
2. Thrust bearing
3. Slider bearing

Journal bearings

Fig. 56 describes the operation of a journal bearing. The black annulus represents the
bush and grey circle represents the shaft placed within an oil film shown by the shaded
region. The shaft, called journal, carries a load P, on it. The journal being smaller in
diameter than the bush, it will always rotate with an eccentricity.

When the journal is at rest, it is seen from the figure that due to bearing load P, the
journal is in contact with the bush at the lower most position and there is no oil film
between the bush and the journal. Now when the journal starts rotating, then at low speed
condition, with the load P acting, it has a tendency to shift to its sides as shown in the
figure. At this equilibrium position, the frictional force will balance the component of
bearing load. In order to achieve the equilibrium, the journal orients itself with respect to
the bush as shown in figure.

The angle θ, shown for low speed condition, is the angle of friction. Normally at this
condition either a metal to metal contact or an almost negligible oil film thickness will
prevail. At the higher speed, the equilibrium position shifts and a continuous oil film will
be created as indicated in the third figure above. This continuous fluid film has a
converging zone, which is shown in the magnified view. It has been established that due
to presence of the converging zone or wedge, the fluid films capable of carrying huge
load. If a wedge is taken in isolation, the pressure profile generated due to wedge action
will be as shown in the magnified view.

Hence, to build-up a positive pressure in a continuous fluid film, to support a load, a

converging zone is necessary. Moreover, simultaneous presence of the converging and
diverging zones ensures a fluid film continuity and flow of fluid.
The journal bearings operate as per the above stated principle.

Figure 51: Journal bearing

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
6.1. Design parameters of journal bearing

The first step for journal bearing design is determination of bearing pressure for the given
design parameters,
 Operating conditions (temperature, speed and load)
 Geometrical parameters (length and diameter)
 Type of lubricant (viscosity)
The design parameters, mentioned above, are to be selected for initiation of the design.
The bearing pressure is known from the given load capacity and preliminary choice of
bearing dimensions. After the bearing pressure is determined, a check for proper selection
of design zone is required. The selection of design zone is explained below.

Figure 52: Result of test of friction

The Fig. 56 shows the results of test of friction. The figure shows a plot of variation of
coefficient of friction with bearing characteristic number. Bearing characteristic number
µ𝑵
is defined as, Bearing characteristic number = 𝒑
It is a non-dimensional number, where μ is the viscosity, N is the speed of the bearing and
𝑷
p is the pressure given by 𝒑 = 𝒅𝒍 , d and l being diameter and length of the journal
respectively.

The plot shows that from B with the increase in bearing characteristic number the friction
increases and from B to A with reduction in bearing characteristic number the friction
again increases. So B is the limit and the zone between A to B is known as boundary
lubrication or sometimes termed as imperfect lubrication. Imperfect lubrication means
that metal – metal contact is possible or some form of oiliness will be present.

The portion from B to D is known as the hydrodynamic lubrication. The calculated value
of bearing characteristic number should be somewhere in the zone of C to D. This zone is
characterized as design zone.

For any operating point between C and D due to fluid friction certain amount of

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
temperature generation takes place. Due to the rise in temperature the viscosity of the
lubricant will decrease, thereby, the bearing characteristic number also decreases. Hence,
the operating point will shift towards C, resulting in lowering of the friction and the
temperature. As a consequence, the viscosity will again increase and will pull the bearing
characteristic number towards the initial operating point. Thus a self-control phenomenon
always exists. For this reason, the design zone is considered between C and D. The lower
limit of design zone is roughly five times the value at B. On the contrary, if the bearing
characteristic number decreases beyond B then friction goes on increasing and
temperature also increases and the operation becomes unstable. Therefore, it is observed
that, bearing characteristic number controls the design of journal bearing and it is
dependent of design parameters like, operating conditions (temperature, speed and load),
geometrical parameters (length and diameter) and viscosity of the lubricant.

6.2. Methods for journal bearing design

Broadly there are two methods for journal bearing design, they are:
1st Method: developed by M. D. Hersey
2nd Method: developed by A. A. Raimondi and J. Boyd

Method developed by M. D. Hersey

This method is based on dimensional analysis, applied to an infinitely long bearing.
Analysis incorporates a side-flow correction factor obtained from an experiment of
McKee.

McKee equation for coefficient of friction, for full bearing is given by,
Nd
f  K1  K2
pc 5.13
Where:
P
p : pressure on bearing (projected area) = (MPa)
Ld
L : length of bearing
D : diameter of journal (mm)
N : speed of the journal (rpm)
μ : absolute viscosity of the lubricant
c : difference bush and journal diameter (mm)
K2 : side-flow factor = 0.002 for (L/d) 0.75-2.8
K1 = 473*10e-6

Steps in designing journal bearings:

Basic design parameters are provided by the designer from the operating conditions like
Bearing load (P), Journal diameter (d), Journal speed (N).

Depending upon type of application, selected design parameters are obtained from a
design handbook, such as, L/d ratio, Bearing pressure(p), c/d ratio, Proper lubricant and
an operating temperature.
Heat generated
The heat generation in the bearing is given by:

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Hg  fPV wherev  is the rubbingvelocity
5.14
Heat dissipation
The heat dissipation in is given by:
Hd  KA(t b  t a ) 5.15
Where A – is projected bearing area
K – is heat dissipation coefficient
tb – bearing surface temperature
ta – temperature of the surrounding

Method developed by A. A. Raimondi and J. Boyd

This method is based on hydrodynamic theory. Assuming no side flow, Sommerfeld

(1904) proposed a solution and defined a parameter, known as Sommerfeld number,
given as:
r  r  2 N 
f     
c  c  p  5.16
Where:
φ = A functional relationship, for different types of bearings
 r  2 N 
   is the dimensionless Sommerfeld number
 c  p 

The Sommerfeld number is helpful to the designers, because it includes design

parameters; bearing dimensions r and c , friction f , viscosity μ, speed of rotation N and
bearing pressure p. But it does not include the bearing arc. Therefore, the functional
relationship can be obtained for bearings with different arcs, say 360ο, 60ο etc.

7. MATERIALS FOR BEARING

The common materials used for bearings are listed below.
- Lead based: around 85 % Lead; rest are tin, antimony and copper
(Pressure rating not exceeding 14MPa)
- Tin based: around 90% tin; rest are copper, antimony and lead
(Pressure rating not exceeding 14MPa)
- Phosphor bronze: major composition copper; rest is tin, lead, phosphorus
(Pressure rating not exceeding 14MPa)
- Gun metal: major composition copper; rest is tin and zinc
(Pressure rating not exceeding 10MPa)
- Cast iron: pressure rating not exceeding 3.5 MPa
- Other materials commonly used are, silver, carbon-graphite, teflon etc.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
PROBLEMS
1. A certain application requires a ball bearing with the inner ring rotating, with a design
life of 30,000 h at a speed of 300 rev/min. The radial load is 1.898 kN and an
application factor of 1.2 is appropriate. The reliability goal is 0.90. Find the multiple
of rating life required, xD, and the catalogue rating C10 with which to enter a bearing
table. Choose a 02-series deep-groove ball bearing from Table Appendix 5, and
estimate the reliability in use. (540, 0.919)
2. A 02-series ball bearing is to be selected to carry a radial load of 8 kN and a thrust
load of 4 kN. The desired life LD is to be 5000 h with an inner-ring rotation rate of
900 rev/min. What is the basic load rating that should be used in selecting a bearing
for a reliability goal of 0.90? (68.51 kN)
3. A certain application requires a ball bearing with the inner ring rotating, with a design
life of 30 000 h at a speed of 300 rev/min. The radial load is 1.898 kN and an
application factor of 1.2 is appropriate. The reliability goal is 0.99. Find the multiple
of rating life required, xD , and the catalog rating C10 with which to enter a bearing
table.
4. The shaft depicted in Fig. carries a helical gear with a tangential force of 3980 N, a
radial force of 1770 N, and a thrust force of 1690 N at the pitch cylinder with
directions shown. The pitch diameter of the gear is 200 mm. The shaft runs at a speed
of 2000 rev/min, and the span (effective spread) between the direct-mount bearings is
150 mm. The design life is to be 6512 h and an application factor of 1.2 is
appropriate. If the reliability of the bearing set is to be 0.99, select
i. Suitable single-row angular contact Timken bearings.
ii. Suitable single-row tapered-roller Timken bearings.

Fig e.g. 4
5. The figure is a schematic drawing of a countershaft that supports two V-belt pulleys.
The countershaft runs at 1200 rev/min and the bearings are to have a life of 60 kh at a
combined reliability of 0.999. The belt tension on the loose side of pulley A is 15
percent of the tension on the tight side. Select deep-groove bearings from Table 11–2
for use at O and E, each to have a 25-mm bore, using an application factor of unity.()

(C10= 8.9 kN) Fig e.g. 5

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
6. A gear-reduction unit uses the countershaft depicted in the figure. Find the two
bearing reactions. The bearings are to be angular-contact ball bearings, having a
desired life of 40 kh when used at 200 rev/min. Use 1.2 for the application factor
and a reliability goal for the bearing pair of 0.95. Select the bearings from
Appendix 5. (Ro = 498N, Rc=1.325kN, C10o=6.398 kN, C10c=17.02 kN)

Fig e.g. 6
7. Estimate the remaining life in revolutions of an 02-30 mm angular-contact ball
bearing already subjected to 200 000 revolutions with a radial load of 18 kN, if it is
now to be subjected to a change in load to 30 kN. (267000 revolutions)
8. The same 02-30 angular-contact ball bearing as in Prob. 7 is to be subjected to a two-
step loading cycle of 4 min with a loading of 18 kN, and one of 6 min with a loading
of 30 kN. This cycle is to be repeated until failure. Estimate the total life in
revolutions, hours, and loading cycles.( 451485 rev, 22.58 cycles, 3.76hrs)
9. A 16-tooth pinion drives the double-reduction spur-gear train in the figure. All gears
have 25◦ pressure angles. The pinion rotates ccw at 1200 rev/min and transmits power
to the gear train. The shaft has not yet been designed, but the free bodies have been
generated. The shaft speeds are 1200 rev/min, 240 rev/min, and 80 rev/min. A bearing
study is commencing with a 10-kh life and a gearbox bearing ensemble reliability of
0.99. An application factor of 1.2 is appropriate. Specify the six bearings.
( C10@B=97.2kN, C10@C=122kN, C10@E=94.8kNkN)

Fig e.g. 9

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

CHAPTER SIX
DESIGN OF
CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

Nomenclature Subscripts
A area, m2; constant B braking

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
a distance, m d de-energizing
b cone or face width, m F friction force
C cost H horizontal
c constant i inner
D largest diameter of cone, m m mean
d smallest diameter of cone, m max maximum
d1,d2, distances used for short-shoe o outer
brakes, m P normal force
d3,d4 p uniform pressure
d5, d6, distances used for long-shoe rim s self-energizing
brakes, m V vertical
d7 w uniform wear
d8, d9, distances used for band brakes, m x, y coordinate
d10  coefficient of friction
F friction force, N  wrap angle, deg
F1 pin reaction force for band brakes,  angular velocity, rad/s
N
F2 actuating force for band brakes, N
hp work or energy conversion rate, W
i Number of friction plates
M moment, N-m
n number of contact surfaces of disks
ns safety factor
P normal force, N
p contact pressure, Pa
p0 uniform pressure, Pa
R reaction force, N
r radius, m
T torque, N-m
T dimensionless torque, T/(2Pr0)
tm temperature, 0C
u sliding velocity, m/s
W actuating force, N
 half-cone angle of cone clutch, deg
 radius ratio, ri/r0
0 optimum radius ratio
 wear depth, m
 circumferential coordinate, deg
a angle where p = pmax, deg
1 location where shoe begins, deg
2 location where shoe ends, deg

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
DESIGN OF CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:
 Different types of clutches and their operating principle
 Different types of brakes and their operating principles
 Design procedure of different clutches and brakes
 Properties of friction materials

INTRODUCTION
Brakes and clutches operate on the same principles. A friction surface is placed between
rotating elements. Pressure on the friction surface either serves to stop the rotating
surface thus acting as a brake, or it serves to cause the non-rotating surface to rotate as in
a clutch.
In the case of a brake, the energy of the rotating element is converted into heat. Brake
heating is a major design concern, thus cooling calculations and media temperatures must
be calculated.

1. CLUTCHES
1.1. Disk Clutch
Fig. 58 shows a disk clutch, it operates by engaging and disengaging two friction surfaces
using an actuating springs (which can be helical springs or a diaphragm spring). In a disk
clutch, there may be several disks which are axially unconstrained. With regard to the
assumed pressure distribution, two approaches may be used, that is, constant wear and
constant pressure.

Figure 53: Disk clutch

Figure 54: Types of Disk clutch

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
To design a disc clutch two theories can be applied the constant wear theory (applied to
newly installed disc clutches) and constant pressure theory (applied to a worn out (old)
disc clutches)

1.1.1. Constant Wear Theory

If the plates are sufficiently rigid, it is assumed that the friction pad wears uniformly over
the area of contact. It is further assumed that wear  depends on pressure p and velocity
v, i.e.
 = cpv
Where
 = wear
p = pressure
v = velocity
Here c is a wear constant. Since the velocity is proportional to the radius r, and at the
inside radius, ri, the velocity is minimum which means p is pmax (since  is constant),
therefore
pr  p max ri
or r
p  p max i
r 6.1
Note that pmax is a material limit. See Table 17.1in the text.
The normal force (applied force) acting over the entire surface at the contacting plates is
ro ro p max ri
Pw   pdA =  2rdr  2p max ri (ro  ri ) 6.2
ri ri r
Note that Fn is often applied by a spring.
The transmitted torque for coefficient of friction  is
ro p max ri
ro
Tw   prdA =   2r 2 dr 6.3
ri ri r
 
 Tw =   i p max ri ro  ri  12  i ro  ri Pw   niPw rm
2 2

Note that the subscript w denotes wear

1.1.2. Constant Pressure Theory

If the plates are flexible, it may be assumed that the pressure between them is constant
over the contact area. Thus the normal force is
Fn  Pp  po ro  ri  2 2
 6.4
The transmitted torque is

ro ro
Tp    p r dA = 2  p  r 2 dr
ri ri


=   i p o ro  ri 
3 3
 
2 ro  ri Fn
3 3
 6.5
3r 
2
i
 ri
3 2 2
o

Note that the subscript p denotes pressure

123 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Example 1:
A car engine develops maximum power of 15 kW at 1000 rpm. The clutch used is single
plate clutch both side effective having external diameter 1.25 times internal diameter µ =
0.3. Mean axial pressure is not to exceed 0.085 N/ mm2. Determine the dimension of the
friction surface and the force necessary to engage the plates. Assume uniform pressure
condition.
Given
P  15kw, n  1000rpm, i  2 (bothsurfaceactive), Do  1.25Di ,   0.3, p  0.085Mpa
Solution
2nT 60000 P
P ,T   143.3Nm
6000 2n
po (d o 2  d i 2 )
Fa   0.067 (1.56d i  d i )  0.038d i
2 2 2

4
2n(ro  ri ) Fa
3 3

T  0.3 * 2 * 0.038d i  143.3Nm

2

3(ro  ri )
2 2

solving for d i , d o and Fa

d i  224 mm
d o  280 mm
Fa  1884.21N
Example 2:
A multi plate clutch having effective diameter 250mm and 150mm has to transmit
60 kW at 1200 rpm. The end thrust is 4.5 kN and coefficient of friction is 0.08 calculate
the number of plates assuming (i) Uniform wear and (ii) uniform pressure distribution on
the plates.
Given
Do  250 mm, Di  150mm, P  60 kW, n  1200 rpm, Fa  PW  4.5 kN ,   0.08

Solution

2nT 60000 P
P ,T   447.7 Nm
6000 2n
1. uniform wear theory

w 2

o i w

T  1 i r r P  nP r
w m
447.7 Nm  0.08 * i * 4500 N *100 mm
Number of friction plates i  13.26  14 (it must be even numbers )

2. uniform wear theory

Try it yourselves

124 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
1.2. Cone Clutch
A cone clutch operates by engaging and disengaging a tapered cone (usually contains a
friction material) in to a cup.

Figure 55: Cone clutch

As shown in Figure below, the analysis is as for constant-wear flat clutch except that an
element of contact area is dA/sin . Substituting this quantity in the derivation of Eq.
(6.2) gives the normal force in a cone clutch:
2p max ri (ro  ri ) 6.6
Fn 
sin

The axial force, Fa, required for sustained operation is

Fa  Fn sin  2pmax ri ro  ri  6.7

which is the same as for a flat clutch (Eq. 6.2). The torque transmitted by a cone clutch is
obtained by substituting Eq. (6.7) into Eq. (6.3), i.e.
Fa rav
T= 6.8
sin

125 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Example 3:
A friction cone clutch has to transmit a torque of 200 N-m at 1440 rpm. The longer
diameter of the cone is 350mm. The cone pitch angle is 6.25°the force width is 65mm. the
coefficient of friction is 0.2.
Determine:
1. The axial force required to transmit the torque.
2. The maximum normal pressure on the contact surface when maximum torque is
transmitted.
Given
T  200 N-m, n  1440 rpm, Do  350mm,   6.250 , b  65mm,   0.2
Solution
1 ) Axial force (Fa )
 Fa rav
T=
sin 
ro  ri
but , b   ri  168mm
sin 
r r
rav  o i  171.5mm
2
T sin 
 Fa   635 N
 rav
2 ) The max imum contact pressure
Fa
p max   0.09 Mpa
2ri ro  ri 

1.3. Friction Media

Obviously the friction coefficient of the clutch surface is important. Some values for
materials are given in the table 28 below:
Table 28: Representative properties of contacting materials operating dry.
Maximum contact
Maximum bulk temprature
pressure , pmax
Coefficient of
Friction material a
friction,  psi kPa ºF ºC
Molded 0.25-0.45 150-300 1030-2070 400-500 204-260
Woven 0.25-0.45 50-100 345-690 400-500 204-260
Sintered metal 0.15-0.45 150-300 1030-2070 400-1250 232-677
Cork 0.30-0.50 8-14 55-95 180 82
Wood 0.20-0.30 50-90 345-620 200 93
Cast iron; hard steel 0.15-0.25 100-250 690-1720 500 260
a
When rubbing against smooth cast iron or steel.
Use of lower contact pressure values will give longer life.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
2. BRAKES
2.1. Disk Brake
Assume constant wear, then the plate clutch equations can be used for disk brakes shaped
like circle sectors. However, the expression has to be corrected by the brake pad contact
ratio, that is, /360 (see Fig. 61). Thus
Uniform wear theory
 
F 2p max ri (ro  ri ) and T = Fn re
360o 360o
_
cos1  cos 2 ro  ri
r
 2  1 2
po ri ri r dr
ro
r  ri r r
2 2
1
re   o  o i
po ri ri dr
ro
2 ro  ri 2
Uniform pressure theory
 2 
F 2 p max (ro  ri ) and T =  p mzx (ro  ri )
2 2 3 3
o o
360 3 360
p a ri r 2 dr
ro
ro  ri 2 ro  ri
3 3 3 3
2
re   
p a ri rdr
ro
3 ro 2  ri 2 3 ro 2  ri 2

cos1  cos 2 2 ro  ri 2 ro  ri cos1  cos 2

_ 3 3 3 3

r 
 2  1 3 ro 2  ri 2 3 ro 2  ri 2  2  1

Figure 56: A sector of disk brake

Where F is the force for full plate contact

2.2. Block Brake with Short Shoe

The brake shown in Fig. 62 consists of a short block, which is pressed against the
revolving drum by means of a lever.

Case 1: Considering the pivot points

When the block is relatively short, it is assumed that the normal force between drum and
shoe is concentrated at point B.

127 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU

Figure 57: Block brake with short shoe with two configurations

Note that from figure 62 that if the pivot for the lever is below the line of action of the
friction force of the shoe, the friction force will help rotate the lever away from the drum.
This effect means more force must be applied to the lever to get braking force.

If the pivot point is above the line of action of the friction force, then the friction force
creates a moment that tries to rotate the lever onto the drum, thus increasing the braking
force. Such an arrangement is called self-energizing. If the pivot point is too high above
the friction force the brake may freeze onto the drum, giving no controlled braking. Shoe
wear can cause such an effect. We will calculate levels of self-energizing later.

2.2.1. Energized or de-energized

If we analyse the short-shoe brake in Fig. 62, we can take moments of forces about
proposed pivot C.
d 4W  Pd1  d 3 P  0 6.11
Note that the moment from the applied force W, (d4W), is the same sign as the friction
moment Pd1. The brake is thus self-energizing.
The normal force P, on the shoe is:
d 4W
P 6.12
d 3  d1
Braking torque is:
rd4W
T 6.13
d 3  d 1
2.2.2. Self-Locking
The brake is self -energizing when the friction force helps to apply the brake. If this effect
is great enough to apply the brake with zero external force, the brake is called self-locking
i.e., the brake is self-locking when the applied force W is zero or negative.
If we set W to zero in the M c equation then:
Pd1  d 3 P  0 6.14
Thus P is indeterminate, and if
d1  d3 6.15
the brake will seize onto the drum. This is bad, since no braking control exists.
2.2.3. Braking Torque
Since torque is just the friction force times the drum radius
rd4W 6.16
T  rP 
d 3  d 1
128 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME
Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Notice that if d1 = d3 then T becomes infinite. This means the brake will seize.
Case 2: considering the rotation of the drum
Consider the following three scenarios:
i. Line of action of tangential force F0 passes through fulcrum

Taking moments about o:

F
F (a  b)  Fn a  a

F a
 Actuating force F 
 ( a  b)
In this case the actuating force is the same whether the direction of tangential force is
towards or away from the fulcrum.
ii. Line of action of tangential force Fθ is in between the center of the drum and the
fulcrum
a) Direction of Fθ is towards the fulcrum :

Taking moments about o:

F (a  b)  Fn c  Fn a

F a F
F (a  b)  Fn a  F c   F c  Fn
 
F a  1 c 
 Actuating force F  
(a  b)   a 

b) Direction of Fθ is away from the fulcrum :

129 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Taking moments about o:
F a F
F ( a  b)   F c  Fn
 
F  a 
 Actuating force F    c
( a  b)   
iii. Line of action of tangential force Fθ is above the center of the drum and the
fulcrum:

Taking moments about o:

F a F
F ( a  b)   F c  Fn
 
F  a 
 Actuating force F    c
( a  b)   
When the angle of contact between the block and the wheel is less than 60°, we assume
that the normal pressure is uniform between them. But when the angle of contact 2θ is
more than 60°, we assume that the unit pressure normal to the surface of contact is less at
the ends than at the centre and the wear in the direction of applied force is uniform. In
such case we employ the equivalent coefficient of friction µ', which is given by:

4 sin θ
Equivalent coefficien t of friction  '  
2θ  sin 2θ
where   actual coefficien t of friction
  semi block angle
The normal force P, on the shoe is:
Fn
P
2wr sin 
2.2.4. Power and Heat generated
Power is the product of Torque T and rotation rate . The total energy dissipated by the
brake is:
 h p dt   Tdt 6.17
and this heat goes into the drum. Brake drums on trucks may even glow red after heavy
use.

130 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Example 4
The block type hand brake shown in fig. eg.4 has a face width of 45 mm. The friction
material permits a maximum pressure of 0.6 MPa and a coefficient of friction of 0.24.
Determine:
1. Effort W,
2. Maximum torque,
3. Heat generated if the speed of the drum is 100 rpm and the brake is applied for 5
sec. at full capacity to bring the shaft to stop.

Fig eg.4
Given
b  45 mm, p  0.6 MPa , μ  0.24, 2θ  900 , θ  450 , d  300 mm, r  150 mm, n  100 rpm
Solution
Since 2θ > 60°, equivalent coefficient of friction
4 sin θ
'  
2θ  sin 2θ
4 sin 45
 0.24  0.264
90
 sin 90
180
 Allowable pressure
Fn
P
2wr sin 
2 * 45mm *150 mm * sin 45
Fn   5.73kN
2wr sin 
 Tangential ( frictional force )
F   ' Fn  0.264 * 5.73kN  1.52kN
From the figure , a  200 mm, b  300 mm, c  0
 The effort F can be calculated by :
Fa
F '   2.3kN
 ( a  b)
 Torque on the drum
T  F r  226.82 N
 Power Absorbed
2nT
P  2.375 kJ sec
60
 The heat generated during 5 sec onds  5 sec* 2.375 kJ sec  11.875kJ

131 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
2.3. Block Brake with Long Shoe (Internal shoe brake)
The analysis of these brakes is more complex because uniform pressure over the lining
cannot be assured. The most typical geometry of the long shoe drum brakes is used on
rear wheels of automobiles and trucks.

Figure 58: Forces and dimensions of long-shoe, internal expanding rim brake.

2.3.1 Lining Pressure Distribution

From Figure 63, it can be concluded that the pivoted end of the shoe will have lower
forces on it than the end where the actuating force is applied (the toe). Friction materials,
called brake linings, have maximum allowable pressures. It is therefore necessary to
develop formulae to allow the maximum pmax and its position to be calculated.
There is no theoretical way to define the pressure distribution along the shoe. Finite
element modelling (FEM) may be used however it is found that a sinusoidal
approximation is reasonable. Thus:
 sin  
p  pmax   6.18
Where  sin  a 
a = angle at which pmax exists
We know that the applied force W must be equal to the total reactions from the shoe. For
a lining of width b:
 sin  
dP  pbrd   p max br  d 6.19
 sin  a 

Note that sin a is a constant known from the brake geometry.

In braking we are interested in the moments about the pivot pin of each element of the
contact force dP. Thus the element of moment dMp is d7 sin . Thus:

2 d 7 brp max
M P   d 7 sin dP   sin 2 d
1 sin  a
brd 7 p max   
2 2   1 180º  sin 2 2  sin 2 1 
6.20

4 sin  a

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
2.3.2. Friction Torque
To calculate the friction toque about the pivot pin:
pmax br 
M F   r  d7 cos  dP  r  d7 cos sin d
sin  a 
2

pmx br 
 r cos  2  cos  1   7 sin 2  2  sin 2  1 
d 
  6.21
sin  a  2 
To determine the self-energizing properties, we sum the moments about the pivot pin
 Wd6  M F  M P  0 6.22
Note the sign on the action moment is the same as that on the friction moment. For
design purposes, the brake is self-energizing if:
MF 6.23
 0.7
MP
Since the value of that ratio demands a real actuating force:
W
M P  M F  6.24
d6
2.3.3. Braking torque
To calculate the braking torque, we take the moment of the friction force about the centre
of the drum.
p br 2  2 p max br 2 cos  1  cos  2 
T   rdP  max
sin  a 1
sin d  6.25
sin  a
Remember that pmax cannot exceed the value allowable for the brake lining. If braking
torque T is not large enough, a wider shoe maybe used as in trucks, a larger drum size
may be used, or the lining material may be changed.

2.4. External shoe brakes (De-Energizing shoe brakes)

A brake shoe may be designed to operate on the external surface of a drum. The analysis
is done in the same way as for the internal shoe. An example of an external shoe
configuration can be seen in figure 64.

Figure 59: Forces and dimensions of long-shoe external contracting rim brake

133 Prepared by: Addisu Kidanemariam, Lecturer, FME

Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
For the geometry shown, with a change of shoe length or pivot point, a de-energizing
geometry can result. In this case, the friction moment is the opposite sign to that of the
actuating force moment.
 Wd6  M F  M P  0 6.26
The actuating force has to be much larger to get the same braking torque. The analysis is
shown on page 817 Shegly’s mechanical engineering design

Pivot Pin Design

One design aspect that must be considered is the pivot pin size. An analysis of the
reaction components at the pin (Rx and Ry) is presented in the text (Shegly’s mechanical
engineering design page 813). The pivot pin must withstand both shear and bending
moments.

2.5. Band Brakes

A band brake, as depicted in Fig. 65, converts rotating energy into heat. The brake
consists of a band wrapped partly around a drum and is actuated by pulling the band
tighter around the drum. The band is assumed to be in contact with the drum over the
entire wrap angle. The pin reaction force is given as F1 and the actuating force as F2, in
general F2<F1 since some friction will exist between the band and the brake. The forces
acting on an element of the band brake is shown in Fig. 65(b). The forces are the normal
force P and the friction force F.

(a) Forces acting on band (b) forces acting on differential element

Figure 60: Band brake
For normal forces:
d d
 P  dP  F sin  F  dF  sin 0 6.27
2 2
Since d is very small we can assume that sin d  d .
2 2 2
Also note that dF d is very small in relation to F d .
2 2
Therefore, equation (6.27) reduces to
dP  Fd 6.28
For the horizontal forces:

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
d d
 Ptan gential  dP  F cos 2  ( F  dF ) cos 2  0 6.29

Since d is very small, cos d  1 . Therefore, equation (6.29) reduces to

2 2
dF  dP  0 6.30
By substituting equation (6.28) into equation (6.30) we get
dF
dF  Fd   d  0
F
F1 dF 

F2 F
   d
0

Integrating gives,
 F   F1
ln 1   or  e  180
6.31
 F2  180 F2
The torque applied to the drum is given by
T  r F1  F2  6.32
The maximum and minimum pressure on the band brake can be determined by analyzing
the equilibrium of an element of the band, as seen in Fig. 65(b). The differential normal
force dP is defined as
dP  pbrd 6.33
where rd = length
b = width (out of the paper)
p = contact pressure, Pa

Substituting (6.33) into (6.28) we get

F
p
br
The maximum pressure occurs at, or near, the pin reaction force, F1, resulting in
F1
p max  6.34
br
By similar analysis the minimum pressure is defined as
F2
p min  6.35
br

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
Example 5:
The band brake shown below has r = 101.6mm, b = 25.4mm, d9 = 228.6mm, d8 =
50.8mm, d10 = 12.7mm,  = 270,  = 0.2, and pmax = 0.52MPa. Find the brake torque, T,
the actuating force, W, and the value of d10 when the brake force locks.

Fig eg: 5
Solution:

By Eq. (5.34) the pin reaction force is: F1  0.52 25.4101.6  1.4 KN
0.2270 180
By Eq. (5.31) the actuating force is: F2  1.4e  520N

By Eq. (5.32) the braking torque is: T  101.61.4  0.520   82.8 Nm

Summing the moments about the hinge pin gives

 d 9W  d8 F2  d10 F1  0

Solving for the actuating force W gives

d 8 F2  d10 F1 50.80.520   12.71.4

W   41.5 N
d9 228.6
If W=0 the brake will self-lock, therefore

d8 F2  d10 F1  0

d 8 F2 50.80.520 
d10    19.8mm.
F1 1.4
The brake will self-lock if d10  19.8mm.

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
PROBLEMS
1. An internal expanding brake has an inner surface of rim of diameter 500mm. The
distance between the fulcrums is 100mm. The distance between the fulcrums and the
point of application of efforts is 400mm. The brake linings sustain an angle of 1200 at
the center. The material of the lining has the co-efficient of friction of 0.3 and an
allowable bearing pressure of 0.5 Mpa. Determine:
(a) The effort required to stop the rotation of the brake drum.
(b) The width of the brake lining. The brake transmits a power of 30kW at a rated
speed of 1500rpm
2. A 75kW at 3000rpm is to be transmitted by a multiple plate clutch. The plates have
friction surfaces of steel and phosphor bronze alternatively run in oil. Design the
clutch for 30% overload and sketch the arrangement of the plates.
3. An automobile single plate clutch consists of two pairs of contacting surfaces. The
inner and outer radii of friction plate are 120 mm and 250 mm respectively. The co
efficient of friction is 0.25 and the total axial force is 15 Kn. Calculate the power
transmitting capacity of the clutch plate at 500 rpm using
a. Uniform wear theory.
b. Uniform pressure theory.
4. A single plate clutch, effective on both sides, required to transmit 22.5 KW at 2400
rpm. Determine the outer and inner diameter of frictional surfaces if the co efficient
of friction is 0.2, ratio of diameter is 1.2 and the maximum pressure is not to exceed
0.1 N/ mm2. Determine 1. The face width required and 2. The axial spring force
necessary to engage the clutch.
5. A simple band brake of drum diameter 650 mm has a band passing over it with an
angle of contact of 2250 while one end of the band is connected to the fulcrum, the
other end is connected to the brake lever at a distance of 410 mm from the fulcrum.
The brake lever is 1100 mm long. The brake is to absorb a power of 15 kW at 720
rpm. Design the brake lever of rectangular cross section assuming the depth to be
twice the width.
6. A single block brake with a torque capacity of 15N-m id shown in fig.1. The
coefficient friction is 0.3 and the maximum, pressure on the brake lining is 1MPa.
The width of the block is equal to its length. Calculate the actuating force 2) the
dimension of the block 3) the resultant hinge pin reaction.
7. An automotive single-plate clutch consists of two pairs of contacting surfaces. The
outer diameter of the friction disc is 270 mm. The co-efficient of friction is 0.3 and
the maximum intensity of pressure is 0.3MPa. The clutch is transmitting a torque of
531 N-m, assuming uniform wear claculate1) the inner diameter of the friction disc
and 2) spring force required to keep the clutch engaged.
8. A multi-disc clutch has three discs on the driving shaft and two on the drive shaft is
to be designed for a machine tool, driven by an electric motor of 22 KW running at
1440 rpm. The inside diameter of the contact surface is 130 mm. the maximum
pressure between the surfaces is limited to 0.1 N/ mm2. Design the clutch. Take µ=
0.3, n1 =3, n2 = 2.
9. The figure shows an internal rim-type brake having an inside rim diameter of 305mm

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
and a dimension R = 127mm. The shoes have a face width of 38mm and are both
actuated by a force of 2250N.The mean coefficient of friction is 0.28.
a) Find the maximum pressure and indicate the shoe on which it occurs.(0.768
Mpa)
b) Estimate the braking torque effected by each shoe, and find the total
braking torque.( 285.85 Nm, 148 Nm, 433.86 Nm)
c) Estimate the resulting hinge-pin reactions.(4.3kN, 956.3kN)

Fig e.g. 6
10. The figure shows a 400-mm-diameter brake drum with four internally expanding
shoes. Each of the hinge pins A and B supports a pair of shoes. The actuating
mechanism is to be arranged to produce the same force F on each shoe. The face
width of the shoes is 75 mm. The material used permits a coefficient of friction of
0.24 and a maximum pressure of 1000 kPa.
a) Determine the actuating force. (5.7kN)
b) Estimate the brake capacity.(1750 Nm)
c) Noting that rotation may be in either direction, estimate the hinge-pin
reactions.(5.9 kN)

Fig e.g. 7
11. The block-type hand brake shown in the figure has a face width of 30 mm and a mean
coefficient of friction of 0.25. For an estimated actuating force of 400 N, find the
maximum pressure on the shoe and find the braking torque.(203 kPa,38.76 Nm)

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Fig e.g. 8
12. The brake shown in the figure has a coefficient of friction of 0.30, a face width of
50mm, and a limiting shoe lining pressure of 1.04Mpa. Find the limiting actuating
force F and the torque capacity. (1.605kN, 2643.8Nm)

Fig e.g. 9
13. The shoes on the brake depicted in the figure subtend a 900 arc on the drum of this
external pivoted-shoe brake. The actuation force P is applied to the lever. The rotation
direction of the drum is counterclockwise, and the coefficient of friction is 0.30.
a) What should the dimension e be? (377.2mm)
b) Draw the free-body diagrams of the handle lever and both shoe levers, with forces
expressed in terms of the actuation force P.
c) Does the direction of rotation of the drum affect the braking torque?

Fig e.g. 10
14. The figure depicts a band brake whose drum rotates counterclockwise at 200 rev/min.
The drum diameter is 250mm and the band lining 20mm wide. The coefficient of
friction is 0.20. The maximum lining interface pressure is 483 kpa.
(a) Find the brake torque, necessary force F, and steady-state power.

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(b) Complete the free-body diagram of the drum. Find the bearing radial load that a
pair of straddle-mounted bearings would have to carry.
(c) What is the lining pressure F at both ends of the contact arc?

Fig e.g. 11
15. A plate clutch has a single pair of mating friction surfaces 300 mm OD by 225 mm
ID. The mean value of the coefficient of friction is 0.25, and the actuating force is 5
kN.
a) Find the maximum pressure and the torque capacity using the uniform-wear
model.(164 Nm)
b) Find the maximum pressure and the torque capacity using the uniform-
pressure model. (162kPa,166Nm)
16. A cone clutch has D = 330 mm, d = 306 mm, a cone length of 60 mm, and a
coefficient of friction of 0.26. A torque of 200 Nm is to be transmitted. For this
requirement, estimate the actuating force and pressure by both models.
17. A brake has a normal braking torque of 320 N · m and heat-dissipating surfaces
whose mass is 18 kg. Suppose a load is brought to rest in 8.3 s from an initial angular
speed of 1800 rev/min using the normal braking torque; estimate the temperature rise
of the heat-dissipating surfaces. (27.80)

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Design of Machine Elements II Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, JIT, JU
LIST OF SOURCES

1. Robert C. Juvinall and Kurt M. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component

Design, Aug 2, 2005
2. Joseph Shigley, Charles Mischke, and Thomas H. Brown, Standard Handbook of
Machine Design, Jun25, 2004.
3. Robert L. Norton, Machine Design: An Integrated Approach (3rd Edition), May 10,
2005.
4. Arthur H. Burr & John B. Cheatham, Mechanical Analysis and Design (2nd Edition),
Mar 2, 1995
5. Coulson and Richardson’s, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Second Edition,
Butterworth Heinemann, 1996
6. Juvinal R.C.: Fundamentals of Machine Components Design, John Wiley & Sons, 4th
ed., 2005.
7. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman, Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.
8. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited, 6th
Edition, 1991.
9. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia Publishing
House, New Delhi.
10. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi, 2003.
11. Black P.H and Adams O.E, Machine design, McGraw Hill Publication, 3rd
Edition. 1982.
12. SKF bearing design catalogue.

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APPENDEX 1

Unit conversion

Angle, 1 rad 57.30 °

1 kgf 9.807 N
Force, F
1 lbf 4.448 N
1 kgf.m 9.807 Nm
Torque, T
1 lbsf.ft 1.356 Nm
1 lbsf.in 0.113 Nm
1 ft 304.8 mm
Length, l 1 inch 25.40 mm
1Å 0.1 mm
Speed, V 1 ft/sec 0.3408 m/sec
1 ton 1000 kg
Mass, M
1 lb 0.454 kg
1 hp 745.7 watt
Power, P 1 ft-lb/sec 1.356 watt

1 lb/in2 6895 N/m2

Stress, σ
1 lb/ft2 47.88 N/m2
Specific Heat, Cp 1 cal/g.°C 4.188 kJ/kg.K
Stress Intensity, K 1 ksi in 1.10 MPa m
Temperature, T 1 °F 0.556 K
Thermal Conductivity, λ 1 cal/s.cm.oC 4.18 W/m.K
1 Imperial gall 4.546 x 10–3 m3
Volume, V
1 US gall 3.785 x 10–3 m3

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APPENDEX 2

Physical and mechanical properties of materials

1. Melting (or softening) temperature, Tm
Tm (0C)
Metals Cast Irons 1130 - 1250
Ferrous High Carbon Steels 1289 - 1478
Medium Carbon Steels 1380 - 1514
Low Carbon Steels 1480 - 1526
Low Alloy Steels 1382 - 1529
Stainless Steels 1375 – 1450
Non-ferrous Aluminum Alloys 475 - 677
Copper Alloys 982 - 1082
Lead Alloys 322 - 328
Magnesium Alloys 447 - 649
Nickel Alloys 1435 - 1466
Titanium Alloys 1477 - 1682
Zinc Alloys 375 - 492
Ceramics Borosilicate Glass 450 - 602
Glasses Glass Ceramic 563 - 1647
Silica Glass 957 - 1557
Soda-Lime Glass 442 - 592
Porous Brick 927 - 1227
Concrete, typical 927 - 1227
Stone 1227 - 1427
2. Density, ρ
ρ (g/cm3)
Metals Cast Irons 7.05 - 7.25
Ferrous High Carbon Steels 7.8 - 7.9
Medium Carbon Steels 7.8 - 7.9
Low Carbon Steels 7.8 - 7.9
Low Alloy Steels 7.8 - 7.9
Stainless Steels 7.6 - 8.1
Non-ferrous Aluminum Alloys 8.93 - 8.94
Copper Alloys 10 - 11.4
Lead Alloys 1.74 - 1.95
Magnesium Alloys 8.83 - 8.95
Nickel Alloys 4.4 - 4.8
Titanium Alloys 4.95 - 7
Zinc Alloys
Ceramics Borosilicate Glass 2.2 - 2.3
Glasses Glass Ceramic 2.2 - 2.8
Silica Glass 2.17 - 2.22
Soda-Lime Glass 2.44 - 2.49
Porous Brick 1.9 - 2.1
Concrete, typical 2.2 - 2.6
Stone 2.5 - 3

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3. Young’s modulus, E
E (GPa)
Metals Cast Irons 165 - 180
Ferrous High Carbon Steels 200 - 215
Medium Carbon Steels 200 - 216
Low Carbon Steels 200 - 215
Low Alloy Steels 201 - 217
Stainless Steels 189 – 210
Non-ferrous Aluminum Alloys 68 - 82
Copper Alloys 112 - 148
Lead Alloys 12.5 - 15
Magnesium Alloys 42 - 47
Nickel Alloys 190 - 220
Titanium Alloys 90 - 120
Zinc Alloys 68 - 95
Ceramics Borosilicate Glass 61 - 64
Glasses Glass Ceramic 64 - 110
Silica Glass 68 - 74
Soda-Lime Glass 68 – 72
Porous Brick 10 - 50
Concrete, typical 25 - 38
Stone 6.9 - 21
4. Yield stress, σy, and tensile strength, σts
σy (MPa) σts (MPa)
Metals Cast Irons 215 - 790 350 - 1000
Ferrous High Carbon Steels 400 - 1155 550 - 1640
Medium Carbon Steels 305 - 900 410 - 1200
Low Carbon Steels 250 - 395 345 - 580
Low Alloy Steels 400 - 1100 460 - 1200
Stainless Steels 170 – 1000 480 – 2240
Non-ferrous Aluminum Alloys 30 - 500 58 - 550
Copper Alloys 30 - 500 100 - 550
Lead Alloys 8 - 14 12 - 20
Magnesium Alloys 70 - 400 185 - 475
Nickel Alloys 70 - 1100 345 - 1200
Titanium Alloys 250 - 1245 300 - 1625
Zinc Alloys 80 - 450 135 - 520
Ceramics Borosilicate Glass 264 - 384 22 - 32
Glass Ceramic 750 - 2129 62 - 177
Glasses Silica Glass 1100 - 1600 45 - 155
Soda-Lime Glass 360 – 420 31 – 35
Brick 50 - 140 7 - 14
Porous Concrete, typical 32 - 60 2-6
Stone 34 - 248 5 - 17
5. Fracture toughness (plane strain), kic
KIC (MPa√𝑚)
Metals Cast Irons 22 - 54
Ferrous High Carbon Steels 27 - 92
Medium Carbon Steels 12 - 92
Low Carbon Steels 41 - 82
Low Alloy Steels 14 - 200

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Stainless Steels 62 – 280
Non-ferrous Aluminum Alloys 22 - 35
Copper Alloys 30 - 90
Lead Alloys 5 - 15
Magnesium Alloys 12 - 18
Nickel Alloys 80 - 110
Titanium Alloys 14 - 120
Zinc Alloys 10 - 100
Ceramics Borosilicate Glass 0.5 - 0.7
Glasses Glass Ceramic 1.4 - 1.7
Silica Glass 0.6 - 0.8
Soda-Lime Glass 0.55 - 0.7
Porous Brick 1-2
Concrete, typical 0.35 - 0.45
Stone 0.7 - 1.5

6. Environmental resistance

Sunlight (UV)
Flammability

Fresh water

Salt water

resistance
Wear
Metals Cast Irons A B C A A
High Carbon Steels A B C A A
Ferrous Medium Carbon Steels A B C A A
Low Carbon Steels A B C A A
Low Alloy Steels A B C A A
Stainless Steels A A A A B
Aluminum Alloys B A B A C
Non-ferrous Copper Alloys A A A A A
Lead Alloys A A A A C
Magnesium Alloys A A D A C
Nickel Alloys A A A A B
Titanium Alloys A A A A C
Zinc Alloys A A C A E
Ceramics Borosilicate Glass A B B A A
Glass Ceramic A A A A A
Glasses Silica Glass A A A A B
Soda-Lime Glass A A A A A
Porous Brick ,Concrete, Stone A A A A C

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APPENDEX 3
Applications of engineering materials
1. Metals: ferrous alloys, non-ferrous alloys

Metals Applications
Cast Irons Automotive parts, engine blocks, machine tool structural
parts, lathe beds
High Carbon Steels Cutting tools, springs, bearings, cranks, shafts, railway track
Medium Carbon Steels General mechanical engineering (tools, bearings, gears, shafts,
bearings)
Low Carbon Steels Steel structures (“mild steel”) – bridges, oil rigs, ships;
reinforcement for concrete; automotive parts,
Ferrous
car body panels; galvanized sheet; packaging (cans, drums)
Low Alloy Steels Springs, tools, ball bearings, automotive parts (gears
connecting rods etc.)
Stainless Steels Transport, chemical and food processing plant, nuclear plant,
domestic ware (cutlery, washing
machines, stoves), surgical implements, pipes, pressure
vessels, liquid gas containers
Aluminum Alloys
 Casting Alloys Automotive parts (cylinder blocks), domestic appliances
(irons)
 Non-heat-treatable Alloys Electrical conductors, heat exchangers, foil, tubes, saucepans,
beverage cans, lightweight ships, architectural panels
 Heat-treatable Alloys Aerospace engineering, automotive bodies and panels,
lightweight structures and ships
Copper Alloys Electrical conductors and wire, electronic circuit boards, heat
exchangers, boilers, cookware, coinage, sculptures
Non Lead Alloys Roof and wall cladding, solder, X-ray shielding, battery
Ferrous electrodes
Magnesium Alloys Automotive castings, wheels, general lightweight castings for
transport, nuclear fuel containers; principal alloying addition
to Aluminum Alloys
Nickel Alloys Gas turbines and jet engines, thermocouples, coinage; alloying
addition to austenitic stainless steels
Titanium Alloys Aircraft turbine blades; general structural aerospace
applications; biomedical implants.
Zinc Alloys Die castings (automotive, domestic appliances, toys, handles);
coating on galvanized steel

2. Composites, ceramics, glasses and natural materials

Composites Applications
Aluminum/Silicon Carbide Automotive parts, sports goods
Metal CFRP Lightweight structural parts (aerospace, bike frames, sports
Polymer goods, boat hulls and oars, springs)
GFRP Boat hulls, automotive parts, chemical plant
Glasses Borosilicate Glass Ovenware, laboratory ware, headlights

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Glass Ceramic Cookware, lasers, telescope mirrors
Silica Glass High performance windows, crucibles, high temperature
applications
Soda-Lime Glass Windows, bottles, tubing, light bulbs, pottery glazes

Alumina Cutting tools, spark plugs, microcircuit substrates, valves

Aluminum Nitride Microcircuit substrates and heatsinks
Boron Carbide Lightweight armour, nozzles, dies, precision tool parts
Silicon Microcircuits, semiconductors, precision instruments, IR
windows, MEMS
Silicon Carbide High temperature equipment, abrasive polishing grits,
bearings, armour
Silicon Nitride Bearings, cutting tools, dies, engine parts
Tungsten Carbide Cutting tools, drills, abrasives

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APPENDIX 4
Standard Parallel Keyway and Key Sizes

Metric Standard Parallel Keyway and Key Sizes

Shaft Diameter (mm) Keyway (mm) Key (mm)*
Width Depth Width Depth
From To
(W) (h) (W) (T)
6 8 2 1.0 2 2
9 10 3 1.4 3 3
11 12 4 1.8 4 4
13 17 5 2.3 5 5
18 22 6 2.8 6 6
23 30 8 3.3 8 7
31 38 10 3.3 10 8
39 44 12 3.3 12 8
45 50 14 3.8 14 9
51 58 16 4.3 16 10
59 65 18 4.4 18 11
66 75 20 4.9 20 12
76 86 22 5.4 22 14
86 96 25 5.4 25 14
96 110 28 6.4 28 16
111 130 32 7.4 32 18
131 150 36 8.4 36 20
151 170 40 9.4 40 22
171 200 45 10.4 45 25
201 230 50 11.4 50 28
231 260 56 12.4 56 32
261 290 63 12.4 63 32
291 330 70 14.4 70 36
331 380 80 15.4 80 40
381 440 90 17.4 90 45
441 500 100 19.5 100 50

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APPENDIX 5
Standard sizes of Rolling Contact
Bearings
5.1. Standard sizes of Deep groove ball
bearings

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5.2. Standard sizes of Angular
contact ball bearings

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5.3. Standard sizes of Tapered roller
bearings

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5.4. Standard sizes of Thrust ball
bearings

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