the elements in sequence by using the loop counter as the array subscript.

6) In what areas do data structures are applied?

Data structures are essential in almost every aspect where data is involved. In general,
algorithms that involve efficient data structure is applied in the following areas: numerical
analysis, operating system, A.l., compiler design, database management, graphics, and
statistical analysis, to name a few.

7) What is LIFO?

LIFO is a short form of Last In First Out. It refers how data is accessed, stored and retrieved.
Using this scheme, data that was stored last should be the one to be extracted first. This also
means that in order to gain access to the first data, all the other data that was stored before this
first data must first be retrieved and extracted.

8) What is a queue?

A queue is a data structure that can simulate a list or stream of data. In this structure, new
elements are inserted at one end, and existing elements are removed from the other end.

9) What are binary trees?

A binary tree is one type of data structure that has two nodes, a left node, and a right node. In
programming, binary trees are an extension of the linked list structures.

10) Which data structures are applied when dealing witha recursive function?

Recursion, is a function that calls itself based on a terminating condition, makes use of the
stack. Using LIFO, a call to a recursive function saves the return address so that it knows how
to return to the calling function after the call terminates.

11) What is a stack?

A stack is a data structure in which only the top element can be accessed. As data is stored in
the stack, each data is pushed downward, leaving the most recently added data on top.

12) Explain Binary Search Tree

A binary search tree stores data in such a way that they can be retrieved very efficiently. The
left subtree contains nodes whose keys are less than the node's key value, while the right
subtree contains nodes whose keys are greater than or equal to the node's key value.
Moreover, both subtrees are also binary search trees.

13) What are multidimensional arrays?

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data being added to it, meaning data is being "pushed" into the stack. On the other hand, a pop
denotes data retrieval, and in particular, refers to the topmost data being accessed.

22) What is a linear search?

A linear search refers to the way a target key is being searched in a sequential data structure. In
this method, each element in the list is checked and compared against the target key. The
process is repeated until found or if the end of the file has been reached.

23) How does variable declaration affect memory allocation?

The amount of memory to be allocated or reserved would depend on the data type of the
variable being declared. For example, if a variable is declared to be of integer type, then 32 bits
of memory storage will be reserved for that variable.

24) What is the advantage of the heap over a stack?

The heap is more flexible than the stack. That's because memory space for the heap can be
dynamically allocated and de-allocated as needed. However, the memory of the heap can at
times be silower when compared to that stack.

25) What is a postfix expression?

A postfix expression is an expression in which each operator follows its operands. The
advantage of this form is that there is no need to group sub-expressions in parentheses or to
consider operator precedence.

26) What is Data abstraction?

Data abstraction is a powerful tool for breaking down complex data problems into manageable
chunks. This is applied by initialy specifying the data objects involved and the operations to be
performed on these data objects without being overly concerned with how the data objects will
be represented and stored in memory.
27) How do you insert a new item in a binary search tree?

Assuming that the data to be inserted is a unique value (that is, not an existing entry in the tree),
check firstif the tree is empty. If it's empty, just insert the new item in the root node. If it's not
empty, refer to the new item's key. If it's smaller than the root's key, insert it into the root's left
subtree, otherwise, insert it into the root's right subtree.

28) How does a selection sort work for an array?

The selection sort is a fairly intuitive sorting algorithm, though not necessarily efficient. In this
process, the smallest element is first located and switched with the element at subscript zero,
thereby placing the smallest element in the first position.

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The smallest element remaining in the subarray is then located next to subscripts 1 through n-1
and switched with the element at subscript 1, thereby placing the second smallest element in
the second position. The steps are repeated in the same manner till the last element.

29) How do signed and unsigned numbers affect memory?

In the case of signed numbers, the first bit is used to indicate whether positive or negative,
which leaves you with one bit short. With unsigned numbers, you have all bits available for that
number. The effect is best seen in the number range (an unsigned 8-bit number has a range
0-255, while the 8-bit signed number has a range -128 to +127.

30) What is the minimum number of nodes that a binary tree can have?

A binary tree can have a minimum of zero nodes, which occurs when the nodes have NULL
values. Furthermore, a binary tree can also have 1 or 2 nodes.

31) What are dynamic data structures?

Dynamic data structures are structures that expand and contract as a program runs. It provides
a flexible means of manipulating data because it can adjust according to the size of the data.

32) In what data structures are pointers applied?

Pointers that are used in linked list have various applications in the data structure. Data
structures that make use of this concept include the Stack, Queue, Linked List and Binary Tree.

33) Do all declaration statements result in a fixed reservation in memory?

Most declarations do, with the exemption of pointers. Pointer declaration does not allocate
memory for data, but for the address of the pointer variable. Actual memory allocation for the
data comes during run-time.

34) What are ARRAYs?

When dealing with arrays, data is stored and retrieved using an index that refers to the element
number in the data sequence. This means that data can be accessed in any order. In
programming, an array is declared as a variable having a number of indexed elements.

35) What is the minimum number of queues needed when implementing a priority queue?

The minimum number of queues needed in this case is two. One queue is intended for sorting
priorities while the other queue is used for actual storage of data.
36) Which sorting algorithm is considered the fastest?

There are many types of sorting algorithms: quick sort, bubble sort, balloon sort, radix sort,

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merge sort, etc. Not one can be considered the fastest because each algorithm is designed for
a particular data structure and data set. It would depend on the data set that you would want to
Sort.

37) Differentiate STACK from ARRAY.

Stack follows a LIFO pattern. It means that data access follows a sequence wherein the last
data to be stored when the first one to be extracted. Arrays, on the other hand, does not follow a
particular order and instead can be accessed by referring to the indexed element within the
array.
38) Give a basic algorithm for searching a binary search tree.

1. if the tree is empty, then the target is not in the tree, end search
2. if the tree is not empty, the target is in the tree
3. check if the target is in the root item
4. if a target is not in the root item, check if a target is smaller than the root's value
5. if a target is smaller than the root's value, search the left subtree
6. else, search the right subtree

39) What is a dequeue?

A dequeue is a double-ended queue. This is a structure wherein elements can be inserted or

40) What is a bubble sort and how do you perform it?

A bubble sort is one sorting technique that can be applied to data structures ch as an ay. It
works by comparing adjacent elements and exchanges their values if they are out of order. This
method lets the smaller values "bubble" to the top of the list, while the larger value sinks to the
bottom.

41) What are the parts of a linked list?

Alinked list typically has two parts: the head and the tail. Between the head and tail lie the
actual nodes. All these nodes are linked sequentially.

42) How does selection sort work?

Selection sort works by picking the smallest number from the list and placing it at the front. This
process is repeated for the second position towards the end of the list. It is the simplest sort
algorithm.
43) What is a graph?

A graph is one type of data structure that contains a set of ordered pairs. These ordered pairs

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are also referred to as edges or arcs and are used to connect nodes where data can be stored
and retrieved.

44) Differentiate linear from a nonlinear data structure.

The linear data structure is a structure wherein data elements are adjacent to each other.
Examples of linear data structure include arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues. On the other
hand, a non-linear data structure is a structure wherein each data element can connect to more
than two adjacent data elements. Examples of nonlinear data structure include trees and
graphs.

45) What is an AVL tree?

An AVL tree is a type of binary search tree that is always in a state of partially balanced. The
balance is measured as a difference between the heights of the subtrees from the root. This self-
balancing tree was known to be the first data structure to be designed as such.

46) What are doubly linked lists?

Doubly linked lists are a special type of linked list wherein traversal across the data elements
can be done in both directions. This is made possible by having two links in every node, one
that links to the next node and another one that connects to the previous node.

47) What is Huffman's algorithm?

Huffman's algorithm is used for creating extended binary trees that have minimum weighted
path lengths from the given weights. It makes use of a table that contains the frequency of
OcCurrence for each data element.

48) What is Fibonacci search?

Fibonacci search is a search algorithm that applies to a sorted array. It makes use of a divide-
and-conquer approach that can significantly reduce the time needed in order to reach the target
element.

49) Briefly explain recursive algorithm.

Recursive algorithm targets a problem by dividing it into smaller, manageable sub-problems.

50) How do you search for a target key in a linked list?

To find the target key in a linked list, you have to apply sequential search. Each node is
traversed and compared with the target key, and if it is different, then it follows the link to the
next node. This traversal continues until either the target key is found or if the last node is

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reached.

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