CONTENTS

MODULE-2: Transformation of stress and strain at a point ........................................................... 2

1. Two-dimensional stress at a point......................................................................................... 2

2. Direction Cosines .................................................................................................................. 3

3. Stress Components on an Arbitrary Plane ............................................................................ 4

4. Stress transformation ............................................................................................................ 6

5. Principal stresses in two dimensions..................................................................................... 7

6. Principal stress in three dimensions ...................................................................................... 9

7. Stress invariants .................................................................................................................. 11

8. Spherical and deviatorial stress tensors .............................................................................. 11

9. Octahedral stresses .............................................................................................................. 12

10. Numerical examples ........................................................................................................ 13

11. Deformation of an infinitesimal line element ................................................................. 20

12. Change in length of a linear element ............................................................................... 22

13. Change in length of a linear element-linear components ................................................ 23

14. Strain transformation ....................................................................................................... 24

15. Principal strains - strain invariants .................................................................................. 25

16. Max. shear strain ............................................................................................................. 27

17. Invariants of Strain Tensor .............................................................................................. 27

18. Spherical and deviatorial strain tensors ........................................................................... 28

19. Numerical Examples ....................................................................................................... 28

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 MODULE-2: TRANSFORMATION OF STRESS AND STRAIN AT A POINT

1. Two-dimensional stress at a point

A two-dimensional state-of-stress exists when the stresses and body forces are independent of one
of the co-ordinates. Such a state is described by stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and the X and Y body forces
(Here 𝑧 is taken as the independent co-ordinate axis).

We shall now determine the equations for transformation of the stress components 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦
at any point of a body represented by infinitesimal element as shown in the Figure

Consider an infinitesimal wedge as shown in Fig.2.7 cut from the loaded body in Figure 2.6. It is
required to determine the stresses 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ , that refer to axes 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ making an angle 𝜃 with
axes 𝑋, Y as shown in the Figure. Let side MN be normal to the 𝑥 ' axis.

Considering 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ as positive and area of side MN as unity, the sides MP and PN have areas
cos⁡𝜃 and sin⁡𝜃, respectively. where 𝑇𝑥 and 𝑇𝑦 are the components of stress resultant acting on MN
in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions respectively. The normal and shear stresses on the 𝑥 ′ plane (MN plane)
are obtained by projecting 𝑇𝑥 and 𝑇𝑦 in the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ directions.

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑇𝑥 cos⁡𝜃 + 𝑇𝑦 sin⁡𝜃
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑇𝑦 cos⁡𝜃 − 𝑇𝑥 sin⁡𝜃

Upon substitution of stress resultants from Equation (2.9), the Equations (2.10) become

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 cos 2 ⁡𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin2 ⁡𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin⁡𝜃cos⁡𝜃

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (cos2 ⁡𝜃 − sin2 ⁡𝜃) + (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 )sin⁡𝜃cos⁡𝜃

𝜋
The stress 𝜎𝑦 ′ is obtained by substituting (𝜃 + 2 ) for 𝜃 in the expression for 𝜎𝑥 ′ . By means of

trigonometric identities

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 1 1
cos2 ⁡𝜃 = (1 + cos⁡2𝜃), sin⁡𝜃cos⁡𝜃 = sin⁡2𝜃
2 2
1
sin2 ⁡𝜃 = (1 − cos⁡2𝜃)
2

The transformation equations for stresses are now written in the following form:

1 1
𝜎𝑥 ′ ⁡= (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )cos⁡2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin⁡2𝜃
2 2
1 1
𝜎𝑦 ′ ⁡= (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) − (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )cos⁡2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin⁡2𝜃
2 2
1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ⁡= − (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )sin⁡2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos⁡2𝜃
2

Equilibrium of the forces in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions requires that

𝑇𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 cos⁡𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin⁡𝜃

𝑇𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos⁡𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin⁡𝜃

2. Direction Cosines
Consider a plane ABC having an outward normal 𝑛. The direction of this normal can be defined in
terms of direction cosines. Let the angle of inclinations of the normal with 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes be 𝛼, 𝛽
and 𝛾 respectively. Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a point on the normal at a radial distance 𝑟 from the origin 𝑂.

Fig. Tetrahedron with arbitrary plane

From figure,
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 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
cos⁡𝛼 = , ⁡cos⁡𝛽 = and cos⁡𝛾 =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
or ⁡ 𝑥 = 𝑟cos⁡𝛼, ⁡𝑦 = 𝑟cos⁡𝛽 and 𝑧 = 𝑟cos⁡𝛾
Let ⁡ cos⁡𝛼 = 𝑙, ⁡cos⁡𝛽 = 𝑚 and cos⁡𝛾 = 𝑛

Here, 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are known as direction cosines of the line 𝑂𝑃. Also, it can be written as 𝑥 2 +
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 (since 𝑟 is the polar co-ordinate of 𝑃 )

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Therefore, = 𝑙, ⁡ 𝑟 = 𝑚 and Here, 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are known as direction 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
𝑟 2 (since 𝑟 is or ⁡ 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 = 1 ⁡𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
+ 𝑟2 + 𝑟2 = 1
Or 𝑟2
𝑙 2 + 𝑚 2 + 𝑛2 = 1

3. Stress Components on an Arbitrary Plane

Consider a small tetrahedron isolated from a continuous medium (Figure 2.9 ) subjected to a
general state of stress. The body forces are taken to be negligible. Let the arbitrary plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶 be
identified by its outward normal 𝑛 whose direction cosines are 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛.

Fig. Stresses acting on face of the tetrahedron

In the Figure 2.9, 𝑇𝑥 , 𝑇𝑦 , 𝑇𝑧 are the Cartesian components of stress resultant 𝑇, acting on oblique
plane ABC. It is required to relate the stresses on the perpendicular planes intersecting at the origin
to the normal and shear stresses acting on ABC.

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The orientation of the plane ABC may be defined in terms of the angle between a unit normal 𝑛 to
the plane and the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 directions. The direction cosines associated with these angles are
cos(𝑛, 𝑥) = 1
cos(𝑛, 𝑦) = 𝑚 cos(𝑛, 𝑧) = 𝑛

The three direction cosines for the 𝑛 direction are related by

𝑙 2 + 𝑚 2 + 𝑛2 = 1

The area of the perpendicular plane PAB, PAC, PBC may now be expressed in terms of 𝐴, the area
of ABC, and the direction cosines.

Therefore, Area of PAB = 𝐴𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴. 𝑖

= 𝐴(𝑙𝑖 + 𝑚𝑗 + 𝑛𝑘)𝑖

Hence, 𝐴PAB = 𝐴𝑙

The other two areas are similarly obtained. In doing so, we have altogether

𝐴PAB = 𝐴𝑙, 𝐴PAC = 𝐴𝑚, 𝐴PBC = 𝐴𝑛

Here 𝑖, 𝑗 and 𝑘 are unit vectors in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions, respectively.

Now, for equilibrium of the tetrahedron, the sum of forces in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions must be zero.

Therefore, 𝑇𝑥 𝐴 = 𝜎𝑥 𝐴𝑙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴𝑚 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝐴𝑛

Dividing throughout by 𝐴, we get

𝑇𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑛

Similarly, for equilibrium in 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions,

𝑇𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑛
𝑇𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑙 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑚 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛

The stress resultant on 𝐴 is thus determined on the basis of known stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥
and a knowledge of the orientation of 𝐴.

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The Equations (2.22a), (2.22b) and (2.22c) are known as Cauchy's stress formula. These equations
show that the nine rectangular stress components at 𝑃 will enable one to determine the stress
components on any arbitrary plane passing through point 𝑃.

4. Stress transformation
When the state or stress at a point is specified in terms of the six components with reference to a
given co-ordinate system, then for the same point, the stress components with reference to another
co-ordinate system obtained by rotating the original axes can be determined using the direction
cosines.

Consider a cartesian co-ordinate system 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 as shown in the Figure 2.10. Let this given co-
ordinate system be rotated to a new co-ordinate system X ′ , y ′ , Z ′ where in 𝑥 ′ lie on an oblique
plane. X ′ , y ′ , Z ′ and X, Y, Z systems are related by the direction cosines.

𝑙1 = cos⁡(X ′ , 𝑋)
𝑚1 = cos⁡(X ′ , 𝑌)
𝑛1 = cos⁡(X ′ , 𝑍)

(The notation corresponding to a complete set of direction cosines is shown in Table 1.0).

Table 1.0 Direction cosines relating different axes

The normal stress 𝜎𝑥 ′ is found by projecting 𝑇𝑥 , 𝑇𝑦 and 𝑇𝑧 in the x ′ direction and adding:

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑇𝑥 𝑙1 + 𝑇𝑦 𝑚1 + 𝑇𝑧 𝑛1

Equations (2.22a), (2.22 b), (2.22c) and (2.24) are combined to yield

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙12 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚12 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛12 + 2(𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙1 𝑚1 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑚1 𝑛1 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑙1 𝑛1 )

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Similarly by projecting 𝑇𝑥 , 𝑇𝑦 , 𝑇𝑧 in the 𝑦 ′ and 𝑧 ′ directions, we obtain, respectively

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛1 𝑛2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑙1 𝑚2 + 𝑚1 𝑙2 ) + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 (𝑚1 𝑛2 + 𝑛1 𝑚2 )

+ 𝜏𝑥𝑧 (𝑛1 𝑙2 + 𝑙1 𝑛2 )

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑧 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙1 𝑙3 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚1 𝑚3 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛1 𝑛3 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑙1 𝑚3 + 𝑚1 𝑙3 ) + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 (𝑚1 𝑛3 + 𝑛1 𝑚3 )

+ 𝜏𝑥𝑧 (𝑛1 𝑙3 + 𝑙1 𝑛3 )

Recalling that the stresses on three mutually perpendicular planes are required to specify the stress
at a point (one of these planes being the oblique plane in question), the remaining components are
found by considering those planes perpendicular to the oblique plane. For one such plane 𝑛 would
now coincide with y ′ direction, and expressions for the stresses 𝜎𝑦 ′ , 𝜏𝑦 ′ , 𝜏𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ would be derived. In
a similar manner the stresses 𝜎𝑧 ′ , 𝜏𝑧 ′ 𝑥 ′ , 𝜏𝑧 ′ 𝑦 ′ are determined when 𝑛 coincides with the 𝑍 ′ direction.
Owing to the symmetry of stress tensor, only six of the nine stress components thus developed are
unique. The remaining stress components are as follows:

𝜎𝑦 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙22 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚22 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛22 + 2(𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙2 𝑚2 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑚2 𝑛2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑙2 𝑛2 )

𝜎𝑧 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙32 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚32 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛32 + 2(𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙3 𝑚3 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑚3 𝑛3 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑙3 𝑛3 )
𝜏𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙2 𝑙3 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚2 𝑚3 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛2 𝑛3 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑚2 𝑙3 + 𝑙2 𝑚3 ) + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 (𝑛2 𝑚3 + 𝑚2 𝑛3 ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 (𝑙2 𝑛3 + 𝑛2 𝑙3 )
⁡(2.25e)

The Equations (2.25 to 2.25e) represent expressions transforming the quantities 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧
to completely define the state of stress.

It is to be noted that, because x ′ , y ′ and Z ′ are orthogonal, the nine direction cosines must satisfy
trigonometric relations of the following form.

𝑙i2 + 𝑚i2 + 𝑛i2 = 1⁡(𝑖 = 1,2,3)

and ⁡𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 = 0
𝑙2 𝑙3 + 𝑚2 𝑚3 + 𝑛2 𝑛3 = 0
⁡𝑙1 𝑙3 + 𝑚1 𝑚3 + 𝑛1 𝑛3 = 0

5. Principal stresses in two dimensions

To ascertain the orientation of 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ corresponding to maximum or minimum 𝜎𝑥 ′ , the necessary
𝑑𝜎𝑥′
condition = 0, is applied to Equation (2.12a), yielding
𝑑𝜃

−(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) sin 2𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃 = 0

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 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
Therefore, tan⁡2𝜃 = 𝜎
𝑥 −𝜎𝑦

As 2𝜃 = tan⁡(𝜋 + 2𝜃), two directions, mutually

√(𝜎𝑥 – 𝜎𝑦 )2 + 4𝜏 2
2τ perpendicular, are found to satisfy above equation. These
are the principal directions, along which the principal or
2θp
maximum and minimum normal stresses act.
(𝜎 x – 𝜎 y)
On principal plane 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 0 on a principal plane. A
principal plane is thus a plane of zero shear.

1 1
𝜎𝑥 ′ ⁡= 2 (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) + 2 (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )cos⁡2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin⁡2𝜃
We know that 1 1
𝜎𝑦 ′ ⁡= 2 (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) − 2 (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )cos⁡2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin⁡2𝜃

𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦

∴ ⁡𝜎 1 = [ ] +[ ].𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑝 + τ.𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝
2 2
(𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦 ) 2𝜏
from the figure 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 ⁡= and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝 ⁡=
√(𝜎–𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2 √(𝜎𝑥 –𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2

𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦 (𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦 ) 2𝜏

∴ ⁡𝜎 1 = [ ] +[ ]. + τ.
2 2
√(𝜎𝑥 –𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2 √(𝜎𝑥 –𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2

𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 1 (𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2 𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 1

𝜎1=[ ] +⁡ . or 𝜎n 1 = [ ] +⁡2 . √(𝜎𝑥 – 𝜎𝑦 )2 + 4𝜏 2
2 2 2
√(𝜎𝑥 –𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2

𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦

Also 𝜎 2 = [ ] +[ ].𝑐𝑜𝑠2(90𝑜 + 𝜃) + τ.𝑠𝑖𝑛2(90𝑜 + 𝜃)
2 2
𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦
∴𝜎2=[ ] +[ ].𝑐𝑜𝑠(180𝑜 + 2𝜃𝑝 ) + τ.𝑠𝑖𝑛(180𝑜 + 2𝜃𝑝 )
2 2
𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦
or 𝜎2 = [ ] − [ ].𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑝 − τ.𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝 substituting for 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑝 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝 ⁡ as
2 2
above
𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦 (𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦 ) 2𝜏
𝜎2= [ ] −[ ]. − τ.
2 2
√(𝜎𝑥 –𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2 √(𝜎𝑥 –𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2

𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 2 2
1 (𝜎𝑥⁡− ⁡𝜎𝑦 ) +4𝜏 𝜎𝑥⁡+ ⁡𝜎𝑦 1
𝜎 2= [ ] −⁡2 . or σ2=[ ] −⁡ 2 . √(𝜎𝑥 – 𝜎𝑦 )2 + 4𝜏 2
2 2
√(𝜎𝑥 –𝜎𝑦 )2 +4𝜏2

The principal stresses are determined by substituting𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0 in the above equation and simplifying

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 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

Algebraically, larger stress given above is the maximum principal stress, denoted by 𝜎1 . The
minimum principal stress is represented by 𝜎2 .

Similarly, by using the above approach, an expression for the maximum shear stress may also be
derived.

6. Principal stress in three dimensions

For the three-dimensional case, for principal stresses it is required that three planes of zero shear
stress exist, that these planes are mutually perpendicular, and that on these planes the normal
stresses have maximum or minimum values. As discussed earlier, these normal stresses are referred
to as principal stresses, usually denoted by 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 . The largest stress is represented by 𝜎1
and the smallest by 𝜎3 .

Again considering an oblique plane x ′ , the normal stress acting on this plane is given by the
Equation.

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙 2 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚2 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛2 + 2(𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑚 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑚𝑛 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑙𝑛)

The problem here is to determine the extreme or stationary values of 𝜎𝑥 ′ . To accomplish this, we
examine the variation of 𝜎𝑥 ′ relative to the direction cosines. As 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are not independent,
but connected by 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1, only 𝑙 and 𝑚 may be regarded as independent variables.
Thus,

∂𝜎𝑥 ′ ∂𝜎𝑥 ′
= 0, ⁡ =0
∂𝑙 ∂𝑚

We know that

𝑇𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑛

𝑇𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑛
𝑇𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑙 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑚 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛

Differentiating 𝜎𝑥 ′ once with respect to l and again with respect to m and simplifying

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 ∂𝑛
𝑇𝑥 + 𝑇𝑧 =0
∂𝑙
∂n
𝑇𝑦 + 𝑇𝑧 =0
∂m

From 𝑛2 = 1 − 𝑙 2 − 𝑚2 , we have

∂𝑛 𝑙 ∂𝑛 𝑚
= − ⁡ and ⁡ =−
∂𝑙 𝑛 ∂𝑚 𝑛

Introducing the above into Equation (2.27b), the following relationship between the components
of 𝑇 and 𝑛 is determined

𝑇𝑥 𝑇𝑦 𝑇𝑧
= =
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛

These proportionalities indicate that the stress resultant must be parallel to the unit normal and
therefore contains no shear component. Therefore, we can write as below denoting the principal
stress by 𝜎𝑃

𝑇𝑥 = 𝜎𝑃 𝑙⁡,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑇𝑦 = 𝜎𝑃 𝑚,⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑇𝑧 = 𝜎𝑃 𝑛

These expressions together with Equations Tx, Ty and Tz lead to

(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑃 )𝑙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑛 = 0

𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙 + (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑃 )𝑚 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑛 = 0
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑙 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑚 + (𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑃 )𝑛 = 0

A non-trivial solution for the direction cosines requires that the characteristic determinant should
vanish.

(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑃 ) 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧

| 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑃 ) 𝜏𝑦𝑧 | = 0
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 (𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑃 )

Expanding above leads to 𝜎𝑃3 − 𝐼1 𝜎𝑃2 + 𝐼2 𝜎𝑃 − 𝐼3 = 0

2 2 2
𝐼2 = 𝜎x 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜏xy − 𝜏yz − 𝜏xz

The three roots of above cubic Equation are the principal stresses, corresponding to which are three
sets of direction cosines that establish the relationship of the principal planes to the origin of the
non-principal axes.

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
7. Stress invariants
Invariants mean those quantities that are unexchangeable and do not vary under different
conditions. In the context of stress tensor, invariants are such quantities that do not change with
rotation of axes or which remain unaffected under transformation, from one set of axes to another.
Therefore, the combination of stresses at a point that do not change with the orientation of co-
ordinate axes is called stress-invariants. Hence

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼1 = First invariant of stress

2 2 2
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜏xy − 𝜏yz − 𝜏zx = 𝐼2 = Second invariant of stress

2 2 2
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜏yz − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏xz − 𝜎𝑧 𝜏xy + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝐼3 = Third invariant of stress

8. Spherical and deviatorial stress tensors

A general stress-tensor can be conveniently divided into two parts as shown above. Let us now
define a new stress term (𝜎𝑚 ) as the mean stress, so that

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑚 =
3
Imagine a hydrostatic type of stress having all the normal stresses equal to 𝜎𝑚 , and all the shear
stresses are zero. We can divide the stress tensor into two parts, one having only the "hydrostatic
stress" and the other, "deviatorial stress". The hydrostatic type of stress is given by

𝜎𝑚 0 0
[0 𝜎𝑚 0]
0 0 𝜎𝑚

The deviatorial type of stress is given by

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
[ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ]
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑚

Here the hydrostatic type of stress is known as "spherical stress tensor" and the other is known as
the "deviatorial stress tensor".
It will be seen later that the deviatorial part produces changes in shape of the body and finally
causes failure. The spherical part is rather harmless, produces only uniform volume changes
without any change of shape, and does not necessarily cause failure.

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
9. Octahedral stresses
A plane which is equally inclined to the three axes of reference, is called the octahedral plane and
1 1 1
its direction cosines are ± ,± ,± . The normal and shearing stresses acting on this plane are
√3 √3 √3

called the octahedral normal stress and octahedral shearing stress respectively. In the Figure below
axes are parallel to the principal axes and the octahedral planes are defined with respect to the
principal axes and not with reference to an arbitrary frame of reference.

Figure Octahedral plane and Octahedral stresses

Now, denoting the direction cosines of the plane ABC by 1, m, and n, the equations (2.22a)
(2.22 b) and (2.22c) with 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎1 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 0 etc. reduce to

𝑇𝑥 = 𝜎1 𝑙, 𝑇𝑦 = 𝜎2 𝑚 and 𝑇𝑧 = 𝜎3 𝑛

The resultant stress on the oblique plane is thus

𝑇 2 = 𝜎12 𝑙 2 + 𝜎22 𝑚2 + 𝜎32 𝑛2 = 𝜎 2 + 𝜏 2

The normal stress on this plane is given by
⁡∴ 𝑇 2 = 𝜎 2 + 𝜏 2

𝜎 = 𝜎1 𝑙 2 + 𝜎2 𝑚2 + 𝜎3 𝑛2

and the corresponding shear stress is

1
𝜏 = [(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 𝑙 2 𝑚2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 𝑚2 𝑛2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 𝑛2 𝑙 2 ]2

The direction cosines of the octahedral plane are:

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 1 1 1
𝑙=± , ⁡𝑚 = ± , ⁡𝑛 = ±
√3 √3 √3

1
Therefore, Resultant stress 𝑇 = √3 (𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 )

1
Normal stress = 𝜎 = 3 (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )

1
Shear stress = 𝜏 = 3 √(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2

1
𝜏 ⁡= 3 √2(𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )2 − 6(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 )
Also, 1
𝜏 ⁡= 3 √2𝐼12 − 6𝐼2

10. Numerical examples

If the principal stresses at a point are 𝟏𝟎𝟎, 𝟏𝟎𝟎, −𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 . Find the octahedral shear at
this point (04 Marks)
1
Ans. Shear stress = 𝜏 = 3 √(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2

1
Shear stress = 𝜏 = 3 √(100 − 100)2 + (100 + 200)2 + (−200 − 100)2

1
𝜏 = 3 √2𝑥3002 =100√2

The state of stress at a point is given as follows.

𝝈𝐱 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐏𝐚, 𝝈𝐲 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐏𝐚, 𝝈𝐳 = −𝟒𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐏𝐚

𝝉𝐱𝐲 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐏𝐚, 𝝉𝐲𝐳 = −𝟔𝟎𝐤𝐏𝐚, 𝝉𝐳𝐱 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐏𝐚

𝟏 𝟏
Determine (i) the stress on a plane whose normal has direction cosine 𝒍 = 𝟒 , 𝐦 = 𝟐

(ii) the normal and shearing stress on that plane.

Ans. We have the relation,

𝑙 2 + 𝑚 2 + 𝑛2 = 1
1 2 1 2
∴ ( ) + ( ) + 𝑛2 = 1
4 2
√11
∴ 𝑛=
4

(a) Using Cauchy's formula,

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 1 1 √11
𝑇𝑥 = −800 ( ) + 400 ( ) + 500 ( ) = 414.60kPa
4 2 4
1 1 √11
𝑇𝑦 = 400 ( ) + 1200 ( ) − 600 ( ) = 202.51kPa
4 2 4
1 1 √11
𝑇𝑧 = 500 ( ) − 600 ( ) − 400 ( ) = −506.66kPa
4 2 4

(b) Normal stress,

𝜎 ⁡= 𝑇𝑥 𝑙 + 𝑇𝑦 𝑚 + 𝑇𝑧 𝑛
1 1 √11
⁡= 414.60 ( ) + 202.51 ( ) − 506.66 ( )
4 2 4
𝜎 ⁡= −215.20kPa

Resultant Stress on the Plane = 𝑇 ⁡= √(414.60)2 + (202.51)2 + (506.66)2

⁡= 685.28MPa

Shear Stress on the plane = 𝜏 ⁡= √(685.28)2 − (−215.20)2

⁡= 650.61kPa

When the stress tensor at point with reference to axis (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) is given by the array

𝟒 𝟏 𝟐
[𝟏 𝟔 𝟎] 𝐌𝐏𝐚
𝟐 𝟎 𝟖

Show that transformation of axis by 𝟒𝟓∘ about the z-axis, the stress invarients remain
unchanged.

Ans. The stress invariants are

𝐼1 = 4 + 6 + 8 = 18MPa
𝐼2 = 4 × 6 + 6 × 8 + 4 × 8 − 1 × 1 − 2 × 2 − 0 = 99MPa
𝐼3 = 4 × 48 − 1 × 8 + 2 × (−12) = 160MPa

The direction cosines for the transformation are given by

x y z

1 1
𝑥′ 0
√2 √2

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 1 1
𝑦′ − 0
√2 √2

𝑧′ 0 0 1

Using Equations (2.21a), (2.21b), (2.21c), (2.21d), (2.21e), (2.21f), we get

1 1 1
𝜎𝑥 ′ ⁡= 4 × + 6 × + 0 + 2 × 1 × + 0 + 0
2 2 2
⁡= 6𝑀𝑃𝑎

1 1 1
𝜎𝑦 ′ ⁡= 4 × + 6 × + 0 − 2 × 1 × + 0 + 0
2 2 2
⁡= 4𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑧 ′ ⁡= 0 + 0 + 8 × 1 + 0 + 0 + 0
⁡= 8𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 1 1 1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ⁡= −4 × + 6 × + 0 + 1 ( − ) + 0 + 0
2 2 2 2
⁡= 1𝑀𝑃𝑎
1
𝜏𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ ⁡= 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 (− )
√2
⁡= −√2𝑀𝑃𝑎
1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑧 ′ ⁡= 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 ( )
√2
⁡= √2𝑀𝑃𝑎

Hence the new stress tensor becomes

6 1 √2
[1 4 −√2] ⁡𝑀𝑃𝑎
√2 −√2 8

Now, the new invariants are

𝐼1′ = 6 + 4 + 8 = 18MPa
𝐼2′ = 6 × 4 + 4 × 8 + 6 × 8 − 1 − 2 − 2 = 99MPa
5
𝐼3′ = 6 × 30 − 1 × 10 + √2 (− ) = 160MPa
√2

which remains unchanged. Hence proved.

When the stress tensor at a point with reference to axis (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) is given by
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟖𝟎 𝟎
[ 𝟖𝟎 −𝟔𝟎 𝟎 ] 𝐤𝐏𝐚
𝟎 𝟎 𝟒𝟎
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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Show that by transformation of axes by 𝟑𝟎∘ anticlockwise, where 𝒛 ' coincides with 𝒛.
Determine new coordinate system

The direction cosines for the transformation are given by

𝑋 𝑦 𝑧

𝑥′ 0.866 0.5 0

𝑦′ −0.5 0.866 0

𝑧′ 0 0 1

Now using equations 2.21(a), 2.21(b), 2.21(c),

2.21(d), 2.21(e) and 2.21(f), we get

𝜎𝑥 1 = 100(0.866)2 − 60(0.5)2 + 0 + 2[80 × 0.866 × 0.5 + 0 + 0]

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 129.3kPa
𝜎𝑦 ′ = 100(−0.5)2 − 60(0.866)2 + 0 + 2[80(−0.5)(0.866) + 0 + 0]
𝜎𝑦 ′ = −89.3kPa
𝜎𝑧 ′ = 0 + 0 + 40(1)2 + 2[0 + 0 + 0]
𝜎𝑧 ′ = 40kPa
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 100(0.866)(−0.5) − 60(0.5)(0.866) + 0 + 80[(0.866 × 0.866) + (−0.5)(0.5)] + 0
+0
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = −29.3kPa
𝜏𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ = 0 and 𝜏𝑧 ′ 𝑥 ′ = 0

Therefore the state of stress in new co-ordinate system is

129.3 −29.3 0
[−29.3 −89.3 0 ] (𝑘𝑃𝑎)
0 0 40

At a point in a given material, the three dimensional state of stress is given by 𝝈𝒙 = 𝝈𝒚 =

𝝈𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 , 𝝉𝒙𝒚 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 and 𝝉𝐲𝐳 = 𝝉𝐳𝐱 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 . Compute the principal
planes if the corresponding principal stresses are 𝝈𝟏 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟑 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 , ⁡𝝈𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 ,
𝝈𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Ans. The principal planes can be obtained by their direction Cosines 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 associated with
each of the three principal stresses, 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3

(a) To find Principal plane for Stress 𝜎1

(10 − 37.3) 20 10 −27.3 20 10

| 20 (10 − 37.3) 10 | = | 20 −27.3 10 |
10 10 (10 − 37.3) 10 10 −27.3

−27.3 10
Now, ⁡𝐴 = | | = 745.29 − 100
10 −27.3

𝐴 = 645.29

20 10
𝐵 ⁡= − | |
10 −27.3
⁡= −(−546 − 100)
𝐵 ⁡= 646
20 −27.3
𝐶 ⁡= | |
10 10
⁡= 200 + 270.3
𝐶 ⁡= 470.3

√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 ⁡= √(645.29)2 + (646)2 + (470.3)2

⁡= 1027.08

𝐴 645.29
⁡∴ 𝑙1 = = = 0.628
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 1027.08
𝐵 646
𝑚1 = = = 0.628
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 1027.08
𝐶 470.3
𝑛1 = = = 0.458
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 1027.08

(b) To find principal plane for Stress 𝜎2

(10 + 10) 20 10 20 20 10
| 20 (10 + 10) 10 | = |20 20 10|
10 10 (10 + 10) 10 10 20
20 10
𝐴=| | = 400 − 100 = 300
10 20

20 10
𝐵 = −| | = −(400 − 100) = −300
10 20
20 20
𝐶=| | = (200 − 200) = 0
10 10
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 = √(300)2 + (−300)2 + (0)2 = 424.26
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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 𝐴 300
∴ 𝑙2 = = = 0.707
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 424.26
𝐵 −300
𝑚2 = = = −0.707
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 424.26
𝐶
𝑛2 = =0
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2

(c) To find principal plane for Stress 𝜎3

(10 − 2.7) 20 10 7.3 20 10

| 20 (10 − 2.7) 10 | = | 20 7.3 10 |
10 10 (10 − 2.7) 10 10 7.3
7.3 10
𝐴=| | = 53.29 − 100 = −46.71
10 7.3
20 10
𝐵 = −| | = −(146 − 100) = −46
10 7.3
20 7.3
𝐶=| | = (200 − 73) = 127
10 10
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 = √(−46.71)2 + (46)2 + (127)2 = 142.92
𝐴 −46.71
⁡∴ 𝑙3 = = = −0.326
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 142.92

𝐵 −46
𝑚3 = = = −0.322
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 142.92
𝐶 127
𝑛3 = = = 0.888
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 142.92

The state of stress at a point is given by the following matrix

9 6 3
[6 5 2] MPa
3 2 4

Determine the principal stress and principal direction.

Ans. The principal stresses are the roots of the cubic equation

𝜎 3 − 𝐼1 𝜎 2 + 𝐼2 𝜎 − 𝐼3 = 0

Here 𝐼1 = 9 + 5 + 4 = 18MPa

𝐼2 = 9 × 5 + 5 × 4 + 9 × 4 − (6)2 − (2)2 − (3)2 = 52MPa

𝐼3 = 9 × 5 × 4 − 9 × 4 − 5 × 9 − 4 × 36 + 2 × 6 × 2 × 3 = 27MPa

∴ The cubic equation becomes

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 𝜎 3 − 18𝜎 2 + 52𝜎 − 27 = 0

The roots of the cubic equation are the principal stresses. Hence the three principal stresses are

𝜎1 = 14.554MPa; 𝜎2 = 2.776MPa and 𝜎3 = 0.669MPa

Now to find principal directions for major principal stress 𝜎1

9 − 14.554 6 3
| 6 (5 − 14.554) 2 |
3 2 (4 − 14.554)
−5.554 6 3
⁡= | 6 −9.554 2 |
3 2 −10.554

−9.554 2
𝐴=[ ] = 100.83 − 4 = 96.83
2 −10.554
6 2
𝐵 = −[ ] = −(−63.324 − 6) = 69.324
3 −10.554
6 −9.554
𝐶=[ ] = 12 + 28.662 = 40.662
3 2
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2

= √(96.83)2 + (69.324)2 + (40.662)2

= 125.83
𝐴 96.53
𝑙1 = = = 0.769
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 125.83

𝐵 69.324
𝑚1 = = = 0.550
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 125.83
𝐶 40.662
𝑛1 = = = 0.325
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐶 2 125.84

Similarly, the principal stress directions for 𝜎2 stress and 𝜎3 stress are calculated.

𝑙2 = 0.596 𝑙3 = −0.226
Therefore, 𝑚2 = −0.800 𝑚3 = −0.177
𝑛2 = 0.057 𝑛3 = 0.944

The Stress tensor at a point is given by the following array

𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎
[𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎] (𝒌𝑷𝒂)
𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟎

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Calculate the deviator and spherical stress tensors.

1
Solution: Mean Stress = 𝜎𝑚 = (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )
3
1
= (40 + 30 + 20)
3
= 30𝑘𝑃𝑎
(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚 ) 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
Deviator stress tensor ⁡= [ 𝜏 𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 ]
𝜏𝑦𝑧 (𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑚 )
(40 − 30) 20 30
⁡= [ 20 (30 − 30) 40 ]
30 40 (20 − 30)
10 20 30
⁡= [20 0 𝑘𝑃𝑎
40 ]
30
30 40 −10

𝜎𝑚 0 0
Spherical Stress tensor = [ 0 𝜎𝑚 0]
0 0 𝜎𝑚

30 0 0
=[0 30 0 ] 𝑘𝑃𝑎
0 0 30

11. Deformation of an infinitesimal line element

Figure 3.3 Line element in undeformed and deformed body

Consider an infinitesimal line element 𝑃𝑄 in the undeformed geometry of a medium as shown in
the Figure 3.3. When the body undergoes deformation, the line element 𝑃𝑄 passes into the line
element 𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ . In general, both the length and the direction of 𝑃𝑄 are changed.
Let the co-ordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑄 before deformation be (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), (𝑥 + Δ𝑥, 𝑦 + Δ𝑦, 𝑧 + Δ𝑧)

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
respectively and the displacement vector at point 𝑃 have components (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤).
The co-ordinates of 𝑃, 𝑃′ and 𝑄 are

𝑃: (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑃′ : (𝑥 + 𝑢, 𝑦 + 𝑣, 𝑧 + 𝑤)

𝑄: (𝑥 + Δ𝑥, 𝑦 + Δ𝑦, 𝑧 + Δ𝑧)

The displacement components at 𝑄 differ slightly from those at point 𝑃 since 𝑄 is away from 𝑃 by
Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦 and Δ𝑧.

∴ The displacements at 𝑄 are

𝑢 + Δ𝑢, 𝑣 + Δ𝑣 and 𝑤 + Δ𝑤

Now, if 𝑄 is very close to 𝑃, then to the first order approximation

∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
Δ𝑢 = ∂𝑥 Δ𝑥 + ∂𝑦 Δ𝑦 + ∂𝑧 Δ𝑧 (a)

∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
Similarly, Δ𝑣 = ∂𝑥 Δ𝑥 + ∂𝑦 Δ𝑦 + ∂𝑧 Δ𝑧 (b)

∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
And Δ𝑤 = Δ𝑥 + ∂𝑦 Δ𝑦 + Δ𝑧 (c)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑧

The co-ordinates of 𝑄 ′ are, therefore,

𝑄 ′ (𝑥 + Δ𝑥 + 𝑢 + Δ𝑢, 𝑦 + Δ𝑦 + 𝑣 + Δ𝑣, 𝑧 + Δ𝑧 + 𝑤 + Δ𝑤)

Before deformation, the segment 𝑃𝑄 had components Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦 and Δ𝑧 along the three axes.
After deformation, the segment 𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ has components Δ𝑥 + 𝑢, Δ𝑦 + 𝑣 and Δ𝑧 + 𝑤 along the three
axes.

∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
Here the terms like ∂𝑥 , ∂𝑦 and ∂𝑧 etc. are important in the analysis of strain. These are the gradients

of the displacement components in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions. These can be represented in the form of
a matrix called the displacement-gradient matrix such as

∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢𝑖 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
[ ]=
∂𝑥𝑗 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
[ ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ]

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
12. Change in length of a linear element
When the body undergoes deformation, it causes a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the body under consideration
to be displaced to a new position 𝑃′ with co-ordinates (𝑥 + 𝑢, 𝑦 + 𝑣, 𝑧 + 𝑤) where 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 are
the displacement components. Also, a neighbouring point 𝑄 with coordinates (𝑥 + Δ𝑥, 𝑦 + Δ𝑦, 𝑧 +
Δ𝑧) gets displaced to 𝑄 ′ with new co-ordinates (𝑥 + Δ𝑥 + 𝑢 + Δ𝑢, 𝑦 + Δ𝑦 + 𝑣 + Δ𝑣, 𝑧 + Δ𝑧 +
𝑤 + Δ𝑤).
Now, let Δ𝑆 be the length of the line element 𝑃𝑄 with its components (Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦, Δ𝑧).

∴ (Δ𝑆)2 = (𝑃𝑄)2 = (Δ𝑥)2 + (Δ𝑦)2 + (Δ𝑧)2

Similarly, Δ𝑆 ′ be the length 𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ with its components

(Δ𝑥 ′ = Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑢, Δ𝑦 ′ = Δ𝑦 + Δ𝑣, Δ𝑧 ′ = Δ𝑧 + Δ𝑤)

⁡∴ (Δ𝑆 ′ )2 = (𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ )2 = (Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑢)2 + (Δ𝑦 + Δ𝑣)2 + (Δ𝑧 + Δ𝑤)2

From equations (a), (b) and (c),

∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
Δ𝑥 ′ = (1 + ) Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑦 + Δ𝑧
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣
Δ𝑦 ′ = Δ𝑥 + (1 + ) Δ𝑦 + Δ𝑧
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
Δ𝑧 ′ = Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑦 + (1 + ) Δ𝑧
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Taking the difference between (Δ𝑆 ′ )2 and (Δ𝑆)2 , we get

(𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ )2 − (𝑃𝑄)2 = (Δ𝑆 ′ )2 − (Δ𝑆)2

{((Δ𝑥 ′ )2 + (Δ𝑦 ′ )2 + (Δ𝑧 ′ )2 ) − ((Δ𝑥)2 + (Δ𝑦)2 + (Δ𝑧)2 )} (1)
⁡= 2(𝜀𝑥 Δ𝑥 2 + 𝜀𝑦 Δ𝑦 2 + 𝜀𝑧 Δ𝑧 2 + 𝜀𝑥𝑦 Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦𝑧 Δ𝑦Δ𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧𝑥 Δ𝑥Δ𝑧)

where

∂𝑢 1 ∂𝑢 2 ∂𝑣 2 ∂𝑤 2
𝜀𝑥 = + 2 [(∂𝑥 ) + (∂𝑥) + ( ∂𝑥 ) ] (1a)
∂𝑥

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 ∂𝑣 1 ∂𝑢 2 ∂𝑣 2 ∂𝑤 2
𝜀𝑦 = ∂𝑦 + 2 [(∂𝑦) + (∂𝑦) + ( ∂𝑦 ) ]
∂𝑤 1 ∂𝑢 2 ∂𝑣 2 ∂𝑤 2
𝜀𝑧 = + 2 [( ∂𝑧 ) + (∂𝑧 ) + ( ∂𝑧 ) ]
∂𝑧
∂𝑣 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
𝜀𝑥𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦𝑥 = [∂𝑥 + ∂𝑦 + ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 + ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 + ] (1b)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝑤 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
𝜀𝑦𝑧 = 𝜀𝑧𝑦 = [ ∂𝑦 + ∂𝑧 + ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 + ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 + ∂𝑦 ]
∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤
𝜀𝑧𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥𝑧 = [ ∂𝑧 + + ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 + ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 + ]
∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤,

Now, introducing the notation

Δ𝑆 ′ − Δ𝑆
𝜀𝑃𝑄 =
Δ𝑆

which is called the relative extension of point 𝑃 in the direction of point 𝑄, now,

(Δ𝑆 ′ )2 − (Δ𝑆)2 Δ𝑆 ′ − Δ𝑆 (Δ𝑆 ′ − Δ𝑆)^2

⁡= [ + ] (Δ𝑆)2
2 Δ𝑆 2(Δ𝑆)2
1 2
⁡= [𝜀𝑃𝑄 + (𝜀𝑃𝑄 ) ] (Δ𝑆)2
2
1
⁡= 𝜀𝑃𝑄 [1 + 𝜀𝑃𝑄 ] (Δ𝑆)2
2

From Equation (1), substituting for (Δ𝑆 ′ )2 − (Δ𝑆)2 , we get

1
𝜀𝑃𝑄 (1 + 𝜀𝑃𝑄 ) (Δ𝑆)2 = 𝜀𝑥 (Δ𝑥)2 + 𝜀𝑦 (Δ𝑦)2 + 𝜀𝑧 (Δ𝑧)2 + 𝜀𝑥𝑦 Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦𝑧 Δ𝑦Δ𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧𝑥 Δ𝑥Δ𝑧
2

If 𝑙, 𝑚, and 𝑛 are the direction cosines of 𝑃𝑄, then

Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧
𝑙= , ⁡𝑚 = , ⁡𝑛 =
Δ𝑆 Δ𝑆 Δ𝑆

Substituting these quantities in the above expression,

1
𝜀𝑃𝑄 (1 + 𝜀𝑃𝑄 ) = 𝜀𝑥 𝑙 2 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑚2 + 𝜀𝑧 𝑛2 + 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑚 + 𝜀𝑦𝑧 𝑚𝑛 + 𝜀𝑧𝑥 𝑛𝑙
2

The above equation gives the value of the relative displacement at point 𝑃 in the direction 𝑃𝑄 with
direction cosines 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛.

13. Change in length of a linear element-linear components

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
It can be observed from the Equation (1a), (1b) and (1c) that they contain linear terms like
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑢 2 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
, , , − − − − 𝑒𝑡𝑐, as well as non-linear terms like (∂𝑥 ) , (∂𝑥 ⋅ ∂𝑦) , − − − − 𝑒𝑡𝑐. If the
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
deformation imposed on the body is small, the terms like , , etc are extremely small so that
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

their squares and products can be neglected. Hence retaining only linear terms, the linear strain at
point 𝑃 in the direction 𝑃𝑄 can be obtained as below.

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
𝜀𝑥 = , ⁡𝜀𝑦 = ∂𝑦 , ⁡𝜀𝑧 =
∂𝑥 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑢
(2)
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = ∂𝑦 + ∂𝑥 , ⁡𝛾𝑦𝑧 = ∂𝑧 + ∂𝑦 , ⁡𝛾𝑧𝑥 = + ∂𝑧
∂𝑥

and 𝜀𝑃𝑄 ≅ 𝜀𝑃𝑄 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑙 2 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑚2 + 𝜀𝑧 𝑛2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑚 + 𝛾𝑦𝑧 𝑚𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝑛𝑙 (2b)

If however, the line element is parallel to 𝑥 axis, then 𝑙 = 1, 𝑚 = 0, 𝑛 = 0 and the linear strain is

∂𝑢
𝜀𝑃𝑄 = 𝜀𝑥 =
∂𝑥

Similarly, for element parallel to 𝑦 axis, then 𝑙 = 0, 𝑚 = 1, 𝑛 = 0 and the linear strain is 𝜀𝑃𝑄 =
∂𝑣
𝜀𝑦 = ∂𝑦

∂𝑤
and for element parallel to z axis, then 𝑙 = 0, 𝑚 = 0, 𝑛 = 1 and the linear strain is 𝜀𝑃𝑄 = 𝜀𝑧 = ∂𝑧

The relations expressed by equations (2) are known as the strain displacement relations of Cauchy.

14. Strain transformation

If the displacement components 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 at a point are represented in terms of known functions
of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 respectively in cartesian co-ordinates, then the six strain components can be
determined by using the strain-displacement relations given below.

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
𝜀𝑥 = , ⁡𝜀𝑦 = , ⁡𝜀𝑧 =
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑢
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + , ⁡𝛾𝑦𝑧 = + and 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = +
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧

If at the same point, the strain components with reference to another set of co-ordinates axes 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′
and 𝑧 ′ are desired, then they can be calculated using the concepts of axis transformation and the
corresponding direction cosines. It is to be noted that the above equations are valid for any system
of orthogonal co-ordinate axes irrespective of their orientations.

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Hence

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
𝜀𝑥 ′ = ′
, ⁡𝜀𝑦 ′ = ′ , ⁡𝜀𝑧 ′ = ′
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑢
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = ′ + ′ , ⁡𝛾𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ = ′ + ′ , ⁡𝛾𝑧 ′ 𝑥′ = ′ + ′
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧

Thus, the transformation of strains from one co-ordinate system to another can be written in matrix
form as below:

1 1 1 1
𝜀𝑥 ′ 𝛾 ′ ′ 𝛾 ′ ′ 𝜀𝑥 𝛾 𝛾
2 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥𝑧 𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑛1 2 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥𝑧 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
1 1 1 1
𝛾 ′ ′ 𝜀𝑦 ′ 𝛾 ′ ′ = [𝑙2 𝑚2 𝑛2 ] × 𝛾𝑦𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝛾 × [ 𝑚 1 𝑚2 𝑚3 ]
2 𝑦𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 𝑙3 𝑚3 𝑛3 2 2 𝑦𝑧 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3
1 1 1 1
[ 2 𝛾𝑧 ′ 𝑥 ′ 𝛾 ′ ′
2 𝑧𝑦
𝜀𝑧 ′ ] [ 2 𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝛾
2 𝑧𝑦
𝜀𝑧 ]

In general, [𝜀 ′ ] = [𝑎][𝜀][𝑎]𝑇

15. Principal strains - strain invariants

During the discussion of the state of stress at a point, it was stated that at any point in a continuum
there exists three mutually orthogonal planes, known as Principal planes, on which there are no
shear stresses.

Similar to that, planes exist on which there are no shear strains and only normal strains occur.
These planes are termed as principal planes and the corresponding strains are known as Principal
strains. The Principal strains can be obtained by first determining the three mutually perpendicular
directions along which the normal strains have stationary values. Hence, for this purpose, the
normal strains given by Equation (2b) can be used. i.e., 𝜀𝑃𝑄 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑙 2 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑚2 + 𝜀𝑧 𝑛2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑙𝑚 +
𝛾𝑦𝑧 𝑚𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝑛𝑙⁡ As the values of 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 change, one can get different values for the strain 𝜀𝑃𝑄 .
Therefore, to find the maximum or minimum values of strain, we are required to equate
∂𝜀𝑃𝑄 ∂𝜀𝑃𝑄 ∂𝜀𝑃𝑄
, , to zero, if 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 were all independent. But, one of the direction cosines is not
∂𝑙 ∂𝑚 ∂𝑛

independent, since they are related by the relation.

𝑙 2 + 𝑚 2 + 𝑛2 = 1

Now, taking 𝑙 and 𝑚 as independent and differentiating with respect to 𝑙 and 𝑚, we get

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 ∂𝑛
2𝑙 + 2𝑛 =0
∂𝑙
∂𝑛
2𝑚 + 2𝑛 =0
∂𝑚

Now differentiating 𝜀𝑃𝑄 with respect to 𝑙 and 𝑚 for an extremum, we get

∂𝑛
0 = 2𝑙𝜀𝑥 + 𝑚𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝑛𝛾𝑧𝑥 + (𝑙𝛾𝑧𝑥 + 𝑚𝛾𝑧𝑦 + 2𝑛𝜀𝑧 )
∂𝑙
∂𝑛
0 = 2𝑚𝜀𝑦 + 𝑙𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝑛𝛾𝑦𝑧 + (𝑙𝛾 + 𝑚𝛾𝑧𝑦 + 2𝑛𝜀𝑧 )
∂𝑚 𝑧𝑥

∂𝑛 ∂𝑛
Substituting for and ∂𝑚, we get
∂𝑙

2𝑙𝜀𝑥 + 𝑚𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝑛𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝑙𝛾𝑧𝑥 + 𝑚𝛾𝑧𝑦 + 2𝑛𝜀𝑧

=
𝑙 𝑛

(𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀) + 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜀𝑥𝑧 𝑛 = 0

𝜀𝑦𝑥 𝑙 + (𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀)𝑚 + 𝜀𝑦𝑧 𝑛 = 0 (4)
𝜀𝑧𝑥 𝑙 + 𝜀𝑧𝑦 𝑚 + (𝜀𝑧 − 𝜀)𝑛 = 0

The above set of equations is homogenous in 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛. In order to obtain a nontrivial solution of
the directions 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 from Equation (3), the determinant of the co-efficients should be zero.

(𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀) 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑧

i.e., | 𝜀𝑦𝑥 (𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀) 𝜀𝑦𝑧 | = 0
𝜀𝑧𝑥 𝜀𝑧𝑦 (𝜀𝑧 − 𝜀)

Expanding the determinant of the co-efficients, we get

𝜀 3 − 𝐽1 𝜀 2 + 𝐽2 𝜀 − 𝐽3 = 0 (4)

where

𝐽1 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑧 𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑧𝑥
𝐽2 = |𝜀 | + | 𝜀𝑧 | + |𝜀𝑥𝑧 𝜀𝑥 |
𝑦𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧𝑦
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑧
𝐽3 = |𝜀𝑦𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑧 |
𝜀𝑧𝑥 𝜀𝑧𝑦 𝜀𝑧

We can also write as

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 𝐽1 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
1 2 2 2
𝐽2 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑥 − (𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝛾𝑦𝑧 + 𝛾𝑧𝑥 )
4
1 2 2 2
𝐽3 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + (𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧 𝛾𝑧𝑥 − 𝜀𝑥 𝛾𝑦𝑧 − 𝜀𝛾𝑧𝑥 − 𝜀𝑧 𝛾𝑥𝑦 )
4

Hence the three roots 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 and 𝜀3 of the cubic Equation (4) are known as the principal strains and
𝐽1 , 𝐽2 and 𝐽3 are termed as first invariant, second invariant and third invariant of strains,
respectively.

16. Max. shear strain

If the components of strain at a point in a body are represented as 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 with reference to
the rectangular co-ordinate axes OX and OY, then the strain components with reference to a set of
axes inclined at an angle 𝜃 with axis OX can be expressed as

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝜃 ⁡= ( )+( ) cos⁡2𝜃 + sin⁡2𝜃
2 2 2
𝛾𝜃 ⁡= (𝜀𝑦 − 𝜀𝑥 )sin⁡2𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 cos⁡2𝜃

and the principal strains are given by

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 1 2
𝜀max or 𝜀min = ( ) ± √(𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2
2 2

The direction of the principal strains are defined by the angle 𝜃 as

𝛾𝑥𝑦
tan⁡2𝜃 = ( )
𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦

Also, the maximum shear strain at the point is given by following relation.

2
𝛾max = √(𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2

17. Invariants of Strain Tensor

These are easily found out by utilizing the perfect correspondence of the components of strain
tensor e ij with those of the stress tensor tij. The three invariants of the strain are:
𝐽1 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
1 2 2 2
𝐽2 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑥 − (𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝛾𝑦𝑧 + 𝛾𝑧𝑥 )
4
1 2 2 2
𝐽3 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + (𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧 𝛾𝑧𝑥 − 𝜀𝑥 𝛾𝑦𝑧 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑧𝑥 − 𝜀𝑧 𝛾𝑥𝑦 )
4
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18. Spherical and deviatorial strain tensors
Like the stress tensor, the strain tensor is also divided into two parts, the spherical and the
deviatorial as,

𝐸 = 𝐸 ′′ + 𝐸 ′

𝑒 0 0
where 𝐸 ′′ = [0 𝑒 0] = spherical strain
0 0 𝑒

(𝜀𝑥 − 𝑒) 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑧

′
𝐸 =[ 𝜀𝑦𝑥 (𝜀𝑦 − 𝑒) 𝜀𝑦𝑧 ] = deviatorial strain
𝜀𝑧𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑦 (𝜀𝑧 − 𝑒)

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 +𝜀𝑧
and 𝑒 = 3

It is noted that the spherical component 𝐸 ′′ produces only volume changes without any change of
shape while the deviatorial component 𝐸 ′ produces distortion or change of shape. These
components are extensively used in theories of failure and are sometimes known as "dilatation"
and "distortion" components.

19. Numerical Examples

The strains components at a point with respect to 𝒙𝒚𝒛 coordinates system are ∈𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎,
𝝐𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎, 𝝐𝐳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎, 𝜸𝐱𝐲 = 𝜸𝐲𝐳 = 𝜸𝐱𝐳 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟎. The coordinate axis are rotated about the
z-axis through 𝟒𝟓∘ in the anticlockwise direction, determine the new strain components and
strain invariants. (10 Marks)

ans. Solution: Direction cosines

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

1 1
𝑥′ 0
√2 √2

1 1
𝑦′ − 0
√2 √2

𝑧′ 0 0 1

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 1 1
Here 𝑙1 = , ⁡𝑚1 = − , ⁡𝑛1 = 0
√2 √2
1 1
𝑙2 = , ⁡𝑚2 = , ⁡𝑛2 = 0
√2 √2
𝑙3 = 0, ⁡𝑚3 = 0, ⁡𝑛3 = 1

Now, we have,

[𝜀 ′ ] = [𝑎][𝜀][𝑎]𝑇
1 1
0
√2 √2 0.1 0.08 0.08
[𝑎][𝜀] = 1 1 [0.08 0.2 0.08]
− 0 0.08 0.08 0.3
√2 √2
[ 0 0 1]
0.127 0.198 0.113
= [−0.014 0.085 0 ]
0.08 0.08 0.3
1 1
− 0
0.127 0.198 0.113 √2 √2
[𝜀 ′ ] = [−0.014 0.085 0 ] 1 1
0.08 0.08 0.3 √2 √2 0
[0 0 1]

0.23 0.05 0.113

[𝜀 ′ ] = [ 0.05 0.07 0 ]
0.113 0.3 0.3

Therefore, the new strain components are

𝜀𝑥 = 0.23, ⁡𝜀𝑦 = 0.07, ⁡𝜀𝑧 = 0.3

1
𝛾 = 0.05 or 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0.05 × 2 = 0.1
2 𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 0, ⁡𝛾𝑧𝑥 = 0.113 × 2 = 0.226

Also J1, J2 and J3

𝐽1 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
1 2 2 2
𝐽2 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑥 − (𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝛾𝑦𝑧 + 𝛾𝑧𝑥 )
4
1 2 2 2
𝐽3 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + (𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧 𝛾𝑧𝑥 − 𝜀𝑥 𝛾𝑦𝑧 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑧𝑥 − 𝜀𝑧 𝛾𝑥𝑦 )
4

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b. The components of strain at a point in a body are as follows:

𝝐𝐱 = 𝟎. 𝟏, 𝝐𝐲 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟓, 𝝐𝐳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝜸𝐱𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟑, 𝜸𝐲𝐳 = 𝟎. 𝟏, 𝜸𝐱𝐳 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖

Determine the principal strains and the principal directions. (10 Marks)

ans.
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑧
𝜀𝑥
2 2 0.1 0.15 −0.04
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑦 = [ 0.15 −0.05 0.05 ]
2 2
𝛾𝑥𝑧 𝛾𝑦𝑧 −0.04 0.05 0.05
[ 2 𝜀𝑧 ]
2

The invariants of strain tensor are

𝐽1 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 = 0.1 − 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.1

1
𝐽2 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑥 − (𝛾 2 𝑥𝑦 + 𝛾 2 𝑦𝑧 + 𝛾 2 𝑧𝑥)
4
1
⁡ = (0.1)(−0.05) + (−0.05)(0.05) + (0.05)(0.1) − [(0.3)2 + (0.1)2 + (−0.08)2 ]
4
⁡∴ 𝐽2 = −0.0291
1
J3 = (0.1)(−0.05)(0.05) + [(0.3)(0.1)(−0.08) − 0.1(0.1)2 + 0.05(0.08)2 − 0.05(0.3)2 ]
4
𝐽3 = −0.002145

∴ The cubic equation is

𝜀 3 − 0.1𝜀 2 − 0.0291𝜀 + 0.002145 = 0

Now cos⁡3𝜃 = 4cos 3 ⁡𝜃 − 3cos⁡𝜃

3 1
Or cos3 𝜃 − 4 cos 𝜃 − 4 cos 3𝜃 = 0

𝐽1
Let 𝜀 = 𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 3

0.1
= 𝑟cos⁡𝜃 +
3

𝜀 = 𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033

∴ (i) can be written as

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 ⁡(𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033)3 − 0.1(𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033)2 − 0.0291(𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033) + 0.002145 = 0
⁡(𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033)(𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033)2 − 0.1(𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033)2 − 0.0291𝑟cos⁡𝜃
⁡−0.00096 + 0.002145 = 0

⁡(𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033)(𝑟 2 cos2 ⁡𝜃 + 0.067𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.00109)

⁡−0.1(𝑟 2 cos2 ⁡𝜃 + 0.067𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.00109) − 0.0291𝑟cos⁡𝜃 − 0.00096 + 0.002145 = 0
𝑟 3 cos3 ⁡𝜃 + 0.067𝑟 2 cos 2 ⁡𝜃 + 0.00109𝑟cos⁡𝜃 + 0.033𝑟 2 cos2 ⁡𝜃 + 0.0022𝑟cos⁡𝜃 +
0.000036 − 0.1𝑟 2 cos 2 ⁡𝜃 − 0.0067𝑟cos⁡𝜃 − 0.000109 − 0.0291𝑟cos⁡𝜃 − 0.00096 +
0.002145 = 0

0.03251 0.00112
i.e., 𝑟 3 cos3 ⁡𝜃 − 0.03251𝑟cos⁡𝜃 − 0.00112 = 0 or cos 3 ⁡𝜃 − cos⁡𝜃 − =0
𝑟2 𝑟3

0.03251 3
Hence Equations (ii) and (iii) are identical if =4
𝑟2

4×0.03251
i.e., 𝑟 = √ = 0.2082
3

cos 3𝜃 0.00112
and =
4 𝑟3

4×0.00112
or cos 3𝜃 = = 0.496 ≅ 0.5
(0.2082)3

60
∴ 3𝜃 = 60∘ ⁡ or 𝜃1 = = 20∘
3

𝜃2 ⁡= 100∘ ⁡𝜃3 = 140∘

𝐽1
∴ 𝜀1 ⁡= 𝑟1 cos⁡𝜃1 +
3
0.1
⁡= 0.2082cos⁡20∘ +
3
𝜀1 ⁡= 0.228
𝐽1 0.1
𝜀2 ⁡= 𝑟2 cos⁡𝜃2 + = 0.2082cos⁡100∘ + = −0.0031
3 3
𝐽1 0.1
𝜀3 ⁡= 𝑟3 cos⁡𝜃3 + = 0.2082cos⁡140∘ + = −0.126
3 3

To find principal directions

(a) Principal direction for 𝜀1

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 (0.1 − 𝜀1 ) 0.15 −0.04
[ 0.15 (−0.05 − 𝜀1 ) 0.05 ]
−0.04 0.05 (0.05 − 𝜀1 )
(0.1 − 0.228) 0.15 −0.04
⁡= [ 0.15 (−0.05 − 0.228) 0.05 ]
−0.04 0.05 (0.05 − 0.228)
−0.128 0.15 −0.04
⁡= [ 0.15 −0.278 0.05 ]
−0.04 0.05 −0.178
−0.278 0.05
Now, 𝐴1 = | | = (−0.278)(−0.178) − (0.05)(0.05)
0.05 −0.178
⁡∴ 𝐴1 = 0.046984
0.15 0.05
𝐵1 = − | | = −[0.15 × (−0.178) + (0.05)(0.04)]
−0.04 −0.178
⁡∴ 𝐵1 = 0.0247⁡

0.15 −0.278
𝐶1 = | | = 0.15 × 0.05 − 0.278 × 0.04
−0.04 0.05
∴ 𝐶1 = −0.00362

√𝐴12 + 𝐵12 + 𝐶12 = √(0.046984)2 + (0.0247)2 + (−0.00362)2

𝐴1 0.046984
∴ 𝑙1 = = = 0.883
√𝐴12 + 𝐵12 + 𝐶12 0.0532
𝐵1 0.0247
𝑚1 = = = 0.464
√𝐴12 + 𝐵12 + 𝐶12 0.0532

𝐶1 −0.00362
𝑛1 = = = −0.068
√𝐴12 + 𝐵12 + 𝐶12 0.0532

Similarly, the principal directions for 𝜀2 can be determined as follows:

(0.1 + 0.0031) 0.15 −0.04

[ 0.15 (−0.05 + 0.0031) 0.05 ]
−0.04 0.05 (0.05 + 0.0031)

0.1031 0.15 −0.04

= [ 0.15 −0.0469 0.05 ]
−0.04 0.05 0.0531

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 −0.0469 0.05
𝐴2 = | | = −0.00249 − 0.0025 = −0.00499
0.05 0.0531
0.15 0.05
𝐵2 = | | = −(0.007965 + 0.002) = −0.009965
−0.04 0.0531
0.15 −0.0469
𝐶2 = | | = 0.0075 − 0.00188 = 0.00562
−0.04 0.05
Now, √𝐴22 + 𝐵22 + 𝐶22 = √(−0.00499)2 + (−0.009965)2 + (0.00562)2 = 0.0125
𝐴2 −0.00499
⁡∴ 𝑙2 = = = −0.399
√𝐴22 + 𝐵22 + 𝐶22 0.0125

0.076 0.05
Now, 𝐴3 = | | = 0.0134 − 0.0025 = 0.0109
0.05 0.176
0.15 0.05
𝐵3 = − | | = −(0.0264 + 0.002) = −0.0284
−0.04 0.176
0.15 0.076
𝐶3 = − | | = 0.0075 + 0.00304 = 0.01054
−0.04 0.05
Now, √𝐴23 + 𝐵32 + 𝐶32 = √(0.0109)2 + (−0.0284)2 + (0.01054)2 = 0.0322
𝐴3 0.0109
∴ 𝑙3 = = = 0.338
√𝐴23 + 𝐵32 + 𝐶32 0.0322
𝐵3 −0.0284
𝑚3 = = = −0.882
√𝐴23 + 𝐵32 + 𝐶32 0.0322
𝐶3 0.01054
𝑛3 = = = 0.327
√𝐴23 + 𝐵32 + 𝐶32 0.0322

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