Unit 1

Introduction to Electrical Control

of Hydraulic Systems

UNIT OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this unit, you will be able to identify the components used
for electrical control of the Hydraulics Trainer and to safely operate the trainer.

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS

In a hydraulic system, fluid power provides the “muscles” or power to do work,

while a control part provides the “brain” to command system operation. Control of
a hydraulic system may range from the simple starting and stopping of the system
to controlling extension and retraction of several cylinders in a completely automated
factory.

A hydraulic system can be controlled either manually or automatically:

C Manual control: system operation is sequenced and commanded by an operator

that decides each action to take.

C Automatic control: system operation is sequenced and commanded by a

controller that decides each action to take. Automatic control can be
accomplished by means of:

a. electrical signals (electrical control);

b. compressed air (pneumatic control);

c. mechanical link (mechanical control).

Manual control is good for system operations which do not require constant
repetition. An earth-moving truck such as those used in construction, farming, and
mining is a common example of a machine requiring manual control. Since the
operator must constantly change the position to where the shovel digs and the depth
at which the shovel digs, automatic control could not be used because the sequence
of operations is not repetitive.

In systems requiring the repetition of a series of operations, however, it would be

inefficient to manually shift the hydraulic valves each time the direction of oil flow
needs to be changed. As an example, Figure 1-1 shows manual and automatic
(electrical) operation of a hydraulic drilling system.

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Introduction to Electrical Control
of Hydraulic System

Figure 1-1. Manual and automatic (electrical) controls of a hydraulic drilling system.

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Introduction to Electrical Control
of Hydraulic System
In Figure 1-1 (a), the part to drill is positioned by hand on the drilling machine. A
directional control valve is then shifted manually to extend the drill cylinder. When
the part is drilled, the directional control valve is shifted in the opposite direction to
retract the drill cylinder. Then the drilled part is removed and a new part is positioned
on the machine. Each step of the drilling sequence must be initiated by the operator,
based on a visual observation that the previous step has been completed.

In Figure 1-1 (b), the only thing the operator has to do is to start the system by
pressing the START pushbutton. This causes the controller to activate the solenoid
of directional valve 1 to extend the feed cylinder and push a part under the drill.
When the feed cylinder is extended, it activates a photoelectric switch, PE1. PE1
sends a signal to the controller that the part has been pushed into position. This
causes the controller to deactivate the solenoid of directional valve 1 to retract the
feed cylinder. Once this cylinder is retracted, it activates photoelectric switch PE2.
This sends a signal to the controller causing it to energize the solenoid of directional
valve 2 to extend the drill cylinder. When the drill cylinder has extended far enough
to drill the part, it activates photoelectric switch PE3. This sends a signal to the
controller, causing it to deactivate the solenoid of directional valve 2 to retract the drill
cylinder. Once this cylinder is retracted, it activates photoelectric switch PE4. This
causes the controller to commence a new sequence of operations by activating the
solenoid of directional valve 1 to extend the feed cylinder. The sequence of
operations will repeat until the system is manually stopped or a malfunction occurs.

As you can see, electrical control adds flexibility, enhanced performance, and safety
to systems involving a series of interrelated operations.

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1-4
 Exercise 1-1

Familiarization with the Equipment

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To identify the components used for electrical control of the Lab-Volt Hydraulics
Trainer;
C To describe the function of each of the following parts of an electrical control
circuit: input element, controller, and actuating mechanism.

DISCUSSION

Basic principles of electrical control

Electrical control is by far the most popular type of automatic control used for
industrial hydraulic applications. As Figure 1-2 shows, an electrical control circuit
consists of the following parts:

1) Input element(s)
2) Controller
3) Actuating mechanism(s)

Figure 1-2. Breakdown of an electrical control circuit.

An input element is a device that provides an electrical signal to indicate that a

hydraulic actuator (cylinder or motor) has reached a specific position, or that it is time

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Familiarization with the Equipment

to start the sequence of operations. Examples of input elements are limit switches,
pushbutton switches, and relay contacts. The signal issued from an input element
is called input signal because it is sent to the input of a controller.

A controller is a device that decides what action to take based on the signals sent
to it from the input element(s). The controller may be a set of electromechanical
relays, a programmable logic controller (PLC), or a computer. The signal issued from
the controller is called control signal because it is used to control the motion of a
hydraulic actuator through an actuating mechanism.

An actuating mechanism is a device that provides oil flow to a hydraulic actuator

according to the control signal sent to it from the controller. Examples of actuating
mechanisms are hydraulic solenoid-operated valves and electro-hydraulic servo
valves.

Indicating devices such as pilot lamps and meters do not make part of the control
circuit because they have no effect on the control process.

Electrical control offers a high flexibility because operation of the hydraulic system
can be changed only by modifying the logic of the controller instead of modifying the
hydraulic circuitry itself. On high-pressure applications, however, electrical control
may become complex and costly because the actuating mechanisms
(solenoid-operated hydraulic valves) must be pilot-operated.

This course will show you how to control the Lab-Volt Hydraulics Trainer with a type
of electrical control called electromechanical relay control. With this type of
control, the controller is a series of relay contacts achieving the proper logic to move
the actuators in a specific sequence.

Procedure summary

In this exercise, you will identify the components used for electrical control of the
Lab-Volt Hydraulics Trainer. You will then classify these components as input
element, controller element, or actuating mechanism.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Identifying the components used for electrical control

G 1. Figure 1-3 shows the components used for electrical control of the
Hydraulics Trainer. Get these components from their storage location and
identify each component by writing its part number (P/N) in Figure 1-3.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

Figure 1-3. Components used for electrical control of the Hydraulics Trainer.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

G 2. Examine the 24-V DC Power Supply. When turned on, this device converts
the 120-V AC line voltage into a 24-V DC voltage that is used to power the
electrical control circuit. The 24-V DC voltage is supplied between the red
and black terminals (also called banana jacks) located on top of the DC
Power Supply.

Look at the information silkscreened next to the jacks. What color is the jack
corresponding to the positive (+) terminal of the DC Power Supply? To the
negative (!) terminal?

G 3. Examine the Dual-Pushbutton Stations. Pushbuttons allow an operator to

manually start and stop a sequence of operations. Each pushbutton has an
internal pair of conducting parts called contact. Pressing a pushbutton
causes its contact to close or open, which sends an electrical signal to the
controller.

Below each pushbutton is a silkscreened symbol indicating the state (open

or closed) of the pushbutton contact when the pushbutton is not pressed, or
in the NORMAL (deactivated) state. Based on the silkscreened symbols,
what color are the normally open pushbuttons? The normally closed
pushbuttons?

G 4. Draw in Figure 1-4 the symbols for normally open (N.O.) and normally
closed (N.C.) pushbutton contacts, as silkscreened on a Pushbutton Station.

Figure 1-4. Symbols for pushbutton contacts.

G 5. Examine the Limit-Switch Assembly. This device consists of two mechanical

limit switches that are used to sense the position of a cylinder rod. As the
cylinder rod travels across a switch, it pushes against the roller, depressing

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Familiarization with the Equipment

the lever arm. This activates the switch, which sends an electrical signal to
the controller.

Activate one of the switches by depressing the roller lever with a finger.
Does the switch make a clicking noise as it activates?

G Yes G No

G 6. Look at the symbol silkscreened on a mechanical limit switch. The switch

has a pair of N.O. and N.C. contacts that are controlled by a common arm.
When the switch is deactivated, the arm contacts the N.C. (red) terminal,
forming a N.C. contact. When the switch is activated, the arm switches to
the N.O. (black) terminal and closes the N.O. contact which was open in the
deactivated (normal) condition. Upon deactivation of the switch, the arm is
returned to its initial position by an internal spring. The switch is called a
single-pole double-throw (SPDT) switch because a single armature
switches back and forth between a N.O. and a N.C. terminal.

In Figure 1-5, draw the symbol for the SPDT contacts of a mechanical limit
switch, as silkscreened on the switch. Identify the COMMON, N.O., and
N.C. terminals on your drawing.

Figure 1-5. Symbol for the SPDT contacts of a mechanical limit switch.

G 7. Examine the Magnetic Proximity Switches. This type of switch is used to

sense the position of the piston inside a cylinder. It is designed to clamp
onto a cylinder equipped with a special magnetic piston, as is the case of
the cylinders supplied with your Hydraulics Trainer. When the magnetic
piston moves within proximity of the switch, its magnetic field activates the
Magnetic Proximity Switch, which sends an electrical signal to the controller.

The + and ! terminals on top of the switch are used to power the sensing
cell inside the switch. The three other terminals provide access to a pair of
N.O. and N.C. contacts. The switch is of SPDT type because a single switch
arm switches back and forth between a N.O. and a N.C. terminal.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

In Figure 1-6, draw the symbol for the SPDT contacts of a Magnetic
Proximity Switch, as silkscreened on the switch. Identify the COMMON,
N.O., and N.C. terminals on your drawing.

Figure 1-6. Symbols for the SPDT contacts of the Magnetic Proximity Switch.

G 8. Mount a Magnetic Proximity Switch on one of the trainer Cylinders. To do

so, loosen the set screw on the proximity switch until the clamp is loose
enough to slip over the cylinder tie rod. Position the switch at the cap end
or at the rod end of the cylinder. Then tighten the set screw until the clamp
is attached firmly to the cylinder tie rod. Could the Magnetic Proximity
Switch be positioned to indicate when the piston passes virtually any point
in its stroke?

G Yes G No

G 9. Examine the Diffuse Reflective Photoelectric Switch. This switch is used to

sense the position of a cylinder rod. It consists of a light source, a receiver,
and a pair of N.O. and N.C. contacts. When powered by a 24-V DC voltage,
the light source projects a beam of infrared light. When the cylinder rod
enters the beam, light reflects off the rod back to the receiver, causing the
switch contacts to turn on.

The + and ! terminals on top of the switch are used to power the infrared
light source. The three other terminals provide access to the switch N.O.
and N.C. contacts. The switch is of SPDT type because a single switch arm
switches back and forth between the N.O. and N.C. terminals.

In Figure 1-7, draw the symbol for the SPDT contacts of the Diffuse
Reflective Photoelectric Switch, as silkscreened on the switch. Identify the
COMMON, N.O., and N.C. terminals on your drawing.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

Figure 1-7. Symbols for the SPDT contacts of the Diffuse Reflective Photoelectric Switch.

G 10. Examine the Pressure Switch. This switch is used to sense the pressure in
a hydraulic circuit. It has a hydraulic port which is to be connected into the
hydraulic circuit like a pressure gage. When the circuit pressure reaches a
preset level, the Pressure Switch is activated, which sends an electrical
signal to the controller.

Look at the symbol silkscreened on top of the switch. The Pressure Switch
is of SPDT type because a single switch arm switches back and forth
between a N.O. and a N.C. terminal. In Figure 1-8, draw the symbol for the
SPDT contacts of the Pressure Switch. Identify the COMMON, N.O., and
N.C. terminals on your drawing.

Figure 1-8. Symbols for the SPDT contacts of the Pressure Switch.

G 11. Examine the Pilot-Lamp Stations. These devices indicate the condition
(activated or deactivated) of an associated device. Each lamp is connected
to a pair of banana jacks allowing connection of that lamp into a circuit. In
Figure 1-9, draw the symbol for a pilot lamp as silkscreened between a pair
of jacks.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

Figure 1-9. Pilot lamp symbol.

G 12. Examine the Relay and Time-Delay Relay / Counter. A relay is an

electromechanical component used in electrical control circuits as a
controller element. It sends control signals to an actuating mechanism to
control the motion of an actuator, based on the signals sent to it from an
input element. One or more relays can be connected in various
combinations to achieve proper logic to move several actuators in a specific
sequence.

G 13. Look at the symbols silkscreened on the Relays. Each Relay consists of a
coil, CR, controlling three sets of N.O. and N.C. contacts. Coil CR is to be
connected to an input element such as a limit switch. The N.O. and
N.C. contacts can be connected to actuating mechanism(s) such as valve
solenoids, or to other relay coils to perform various logic functions.

When the input element applies a 24-V DC voltage across coil CR, the coil
energizes and shifts its associated contacts to their opposite state.
N.O. contacts close and N.C. contacts open. When the 24-V DC voltage is
removed from coil CR, the coil de-energizes and its associated contacts are
returned to their normal state by a spring.

Based on the silkscreened symbols, what type of relay contact (N.O./N.C.)

is connected between the following pairs of terminals: 1-2, 4-5, and 7-8?
Between the following pairs: 2-3, 5-6, and 8-9?

G 14. Examine the symbols silkscreened on the Time-Delay Relay / Counter. This
device can be programmed for either timing or counting function by
configuring the thumbwheel switches on top of the unit accordingly. When
the preset time or count set on the thumbwheel switches is reached, the
Time-Delay Relay / Counter shifts its two sets of contacts to the activated
state.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

Based on the silkscreened information, are the symbols for N.C. and N.O.
contacts of the Time-Delay Relay / Counter similar to those for N.O. and
N.C contacts of the Relays?

G Yes G No

G 15. Examine the single-solenoid operated, 4-way, 2-position, spring-return

Directional Valve. This valve is an actuating mechanism providing fluid flow
to a hydraulic actuator such as a cylinder or motor. It is operated by an
electrical solenoid. This solenoid must be connected to a controller
output—usually a relay contact.

When the solenoid is energized by the controller, it pushes the valve spool
to the straight-arrows condition, causing the actuator to move in one
direction. When the solenoid is de-energized, an internal spring returns the
valve spool to the normal, crossed-arrows condition, causing the actuator
to move in the other direction.

In Figure 1-10, draw the symbol for the single-solenoid operated,

4-way, 2-position, spring-return Directional Valve, as engraved on the
manufacturer name plate located on top of the valve.

Figure 1-10. Symbol for the single-solenoid operated, 4-way, 2-position, spring-return Directional
Valve.

G 16. Examine the double-solenoid operated, 4-way, 3 position, spring-centered,

tandem-center Directional Valve. This valve is operated by two separate
solenoids that shift the spool to the straight-arrows and crossed-arrows
conditions. Each solenoid must be connected to a controller output—usually
a relay contact.

When neither solenoid is energized by the controller, the spool is kept in the
center position by centering springs. The valve has a tandem center
condition, which means that the pressure (P) and return (T) ports are
connected when the valve is centered.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

In Figure 1-11, draw the symbol for the double-solenoid operated, 4-way,
3-position, spring-centered, tandem-center Directional Valve, as engraved
on the manufacturer name plate located on top of the valve.

Figure 1-11. Symbol for a double-solenoid operated, 4-way, 3-position, spring-centered, tandem-
center Directional Valve.

G 17. Examine the electrical leads. These wires are used to carry electrical signals
from one component of the electrical control circuit to another. They can be
connected to any of the banana jacks on the electrical components of the
Hydraulics Trainer. The leads can be stack connected.

Practice connecting and disconnecting the leads and stack connect the lead
ends as shown in Figure 1-12. Then, disconnect and store the electrical
leads.

Figure 1-12. Connecting and stacking leads.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

G 18. Based on what you have learned in this exercise, classify the components
used for electrical control of the Hydraulics Trainer as input element,
controller element, or actuating mechanism by checking the appropriate box
in Table 1-1.

INPUT CONTROL ACTUATING

COMPONENT
ELEMENT ELEMENT MECHANISM

Double-solenoid operated, 4-way,

3-position, tandem-center
Directional Valve

Time-Delay Relay / Counter

Limit Switch

Magnetic Proximity Switch

Relays

Pressure Switch

Single-solenoid operated,
4-way, 2-position, Directional
Valve

Diffuse Reflective Photo-

electric Switch

Pushbutton

Table 1-1. Classifying the components used for electrical control of the Hydraulics Trainer.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you were introduced to the components used for electrical control
of the Hydraulics Trainer. You classified these components as input element,
controller element, or actuating mechanism.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name the three parts of an electrical control circuit.

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Familiarization with the Equipment

2. What is the function of an input element?

3. Name the two types of relays used as controller elements in the Hydraulics
Trainer.

4. Name the part of an electrical control circuit that provides oil flow to the
actuator(s) according to the control signals received from the controller.

5. What is meant by “contact” when speaking of an input switch or a control relay?

6. What device provides the 24-V DC voltage required to power the electrical
components of the Hydraulics Trainer?

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 Unit Test

1. Which one of the following is not a part of an electrical control circuit?

a. Input element;
b. Controller;
c. Meter;
d. Actuating mechanism.

2. An input element is a device that

a. decides what action to take based on the signals sent to it from the actuating
mechanisms.
b. decides what action to take based on the signals sent to it from the
controller.
c. provides an electrical signal to indicate that a hydraulic actuator has reached
a specific position or that it is time to start an operation.
d. provides oil flow to a hydraulic actuator according to the control signals sent
to it from the controller.

3. Which one of the following is not an input element?

a. Relay contact;
b. Pushbutton;
c. Pilot lamp;
d. Mechanical limit switch.

4. What type of controller element is used for electrical control of the Lab-Volt
Hydraulics Trainer?

a. Set of electromechanical relays;

b. Programmable logic controller (PLC);
c. Computer;
d. Multimeter.

5. Which part of an electrical control circuit provides oil flow to a hydraulic actuator
according to the control signals sent to it from the controller?

a. Input element;
b. Actuating mechanism;
c. Electromechanical relay;
d. Metering device.

6. Which one of the following is an actuating mechanism?

a. Single-solenoid operated directional valve;

b. Double-solenoid operated directional valve;
c. Flow control valve;
d. Both a. and b.

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 Unit Test (cont'd)

7. Switch and relay contacts are symbolized

a. as normally open.
b. as normally closed.
c. in their normal (deactivated) position.
d. in their activated position.

8. A normally open (N.O.) switch contact is a contact that

a. opens when the switch is activated.

b. closes when the switch is activated.
c. closes when the switch is deactivated.
d. Both a. and c.

9. A normally closed (N.C.) relay contact is a contact that

a. opens when the relay coil is activated.

b. closes when the relay coil is deactivated.
c. opens when the relay coil is deactivated.
d. Both a. and b.

10. Which one of the following converts the 120-V AC line voltage into a 24-V DC
voltage that is used to power the electrical components of the Lab-Volt
Hydraulics Trainer?

a. Limit-Switch Assembly;
b. Relay;
c. Electrical lead;
d. 24-V DC Power Supply.

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 Unit 2

Electrical Control Principles

UNIT OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this unit, you will be able to measure the voltage,
resistance, and current in an electrical circuit. You will also be able to read and draw
simple ladder diagrams. A simple electrically controlled hydraulic system will be
assembled and operated.

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS

In order to understand how electrical control circuits work, it is important that you first
become familiar with the three parameters associated with basic electricity: voltage,
resistance, and current. Exercise 2-1 defines these parameters and describes the
relationship between them. It also shows how to measure each parameter in an
electrical DC circuit.

Electrical control circuits are represented on paper by ladder diagrams. Ladder

diagrams use a different set of symbols and rules than hydraulic schematics, but
their function is the same: to show how components are connected and how the
circuit operates. Exercise 2-2 explains how a ladder diagram works and how it
relates to the hydraulic circuitry. It also lists the rules for drawing ladder diagrams.

Exercise 2-3 introduces students to a basic electrically controlled hydraulic system

called one-cycle reciprocation system. One-cycle reciprocation systems extend
and retract a cylinder one time after an operator presses a START pushbutton. They
are often used on machines where an operator must position the workpiece by hand
before actuating the work cylinder.

2-1
2-2
 Exercise 2-1

Basic Electricity

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

• To measure voltage, resistance, and current in an electrical control circuit;

• To test the operation of an electrical control circuit;
• To be aware of the safety rules to follow when using electrical equipment to
control a hydraulic system.

DISCUSSION

Fundamentals

Electricity is a form of energy used for lighting, heating, or providing control and
power for machines. It is produced by the flow of tiny particles of matter called
electrons through a conducting material. Examples of conducting materials are iron,
copper, and aluminium.

Electrical components such as wires, lamps, and solenoids are made of conducting
material and so allow electrons to pass through them. To produce a flow of electrons,
the electrical component must be connected to a source of electromotive force that
pushes the electrons through the component. This source may be either a generator
or a battery. As an example, Figure 2-1 shows a battery pushing electrons through
electrical wires to energize a solenoid. As a result, a magnetic field is created around
the solenoid.

Figure 2-1. Simple electrical circuit.

The electromotive force exerted by a source is called voltage. The magnitude of the
voltage is measured in volts (V). The instrument used to measure voltage is called
a voltmeter.

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Basic Electricity

There is always an opposition to the flow of electrons through an electrical

component. This opposition to electron flow is called resistance. Resistance is
measured in ohms (Ω). The instrument used to measure resistance is called an
ohmmeter.

The result of electrons flowing through an electrical component is called current.

The magnitude of the current is measured in amperes (A). One ampere is equal to
18
the motion of 6.24 x 10 electrons past a cross section in 1 second. The instrument
used to measure current is called an ammeter.

Ohm’s law

The magnitude of the current flowing through an electrical component is equal to the
voltage drop across the component, in volts, divided by the resistance of the
component, in ohms. This is called the Ohm’s law. Written as an equation, it
becomes:

If, for example, the voltage drop across the solenoid in Figure 2-1 is 20 V and the
resistance of the solenoid is 10 Ω, then the magnitude of the current flowing through
the solenoid is 2 A.

The Ohm’s law can be reformulated to calculate either voltage drop, resistance, or
current when the other two variables are known.

Electrical power

The capability of an electrical source to move electrons through a circuit is called

electrical power. Electrical power is measured in watts (W). The amount of power
generated by an electrical source is equal to the voltage supplied by this source
multiplied by the current flowing through the circuit. In equation form:

Some of the electrical power generated by the source is dissipated as heat by each
component in the circuit due to the resistance, or opposition to the current flow, of
the components. The rest of the power is consumed by an electrical device called
a load to perform a useful work such as producing light (lamp), providing rotary
motion (motor), or moving a plunger (solenoid).

The amount of power consumed by a load is equal to the voltage drop across this
load multiplied by the current flowing through it. It is also equal to the square of the
current flowing through the load multiplied by the resistance of the load. In equation
form:

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Basic Electricity

If, for example, the current flowing through the solenoid in Figure 2-1 is 2 A and the
resistance of the solenoid is 5 Ω, then the power consumed by the solenoid is 20 W.

Types of electric current

Current flow through an electrical circuit may be one of two types: direct current or
alternating current.

• Direct current (DC) is the type of current produced by batteries and DC power
supplies. This type of current flows in only one direction: from the positive (+)
terminal of the battery or power supply towards the negative (!) terminal. The
DC Power Supply provided with your Hydraulics Trainer, for example, produces
a DC current.

Note: In DC circuits, the convention used for current flow says that current
flows from the positive (+) terminal of the DC source towards the negative
(!) terminal, even though the electrons actually flow from the negative
terminal towards the positive terminal.

• Alternating current (AC) is the type of current supplied to most houses and
plants. This type of current changes direction (polarity) many times each second.
Examples of devices that produce AC current are alternators and AC generators.

Figure 2-2 shows the symbols used to represent DC and AC power sources in
electrical diagrams.

Figure 2-2. Symbols used to represent DC and AC power sources in electrical diagrams.

Closed and open circuits

Figure 2-3 shows a simple DC circuit. This circuit includes a 24-V DC power supply,
a normally open (N.O.) pushbutton, and a directional valve solenoid. The pushbutton
allows an operator to control the flow of current through the circuit.

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Basic Electricity

Figure 2-3. A pushbutton controls the flow of current through the circuit.

When the operator presses the pushbutton, the contact in the pushbutton goes from
open to closed, which creates a complete conducting path, starting at the
positive (+) terminal of the power supply, through the pushbutton contact, the
solenoid, and back to the negative (!) terminal of the power supply, as Figure 2-3 a)
shows. This permits the current to flow through the circuit. The circuit is said to be
closed. As a result, solenoid SOL-A is energized.

When the operator releases the pushbutton, the pushbutton contact goes from
closed to open, which breaks the continuity of the conducting path and stops the flow
of current, as Figure 2-3 b) shows. The circuit is said to be open. As a result,
solenoid SOL-A is de-energized.

Measuring voltage drop, resistance, and current

As previously mentioned, voltage is measured with a voltmeter, resistance is

measured with an ohmmeter, and current is measured with an ammeter. These
meters are available as separate units, but they are usually found combined in a
single enclosure called multimeter.

Figure 2-4 shows how to measure voltage drop, resistance, and current in a
DC circuit. Either a multimeter or a separate meter may be used.

• To measure the voltage drop across a component, connect a voltmeter or

multimeter placed in voltmeter mode across the component terminals, as
Figure 2-4 a) shows. Then turn on the power supply.

• To measure the resistance of a component, make sure the power supply is

turned off, then disconnect the component from the circuit. This may require you
to open one or more circuit connections. Connect an ohmmeter or multimeter
placed in ohmmeter mode across the component terminals, as Figure 2-4 b)

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Basic Electricity

shows. The ohmmeter has its own internal power source (battery) that supplies
a current used to test the resistance of the component.

• To measure the current flowing through a component, make sure the power
supply is turned off, then connect an ammeter or multimeter placed in ammeter
mode in series with the component, as Figure 2-4 c) shows. Then, turn on the
power supply.

Note: Series means that all the current will flow through the component
and the rest of the circuit when the power supply is turned on.

Figure 2-4. Measuring voltage, resistance, and current in a DC circuit.

When using meters in DC circuits, it is essential to hook them up to the circuit

according to the proper polarity, since they will not read properly if connected
backwards and may be damaged. This means that the positive terminal (red probe)
of the meter must be connected to the positive side of the component under test, and
the negative terminal (black probe) of the meter to the negative side of the
component. The positive side of a component is the side that is nearest to the
positive terminal of the power supply on the electrical diagram of the circuit. The
voltage on the positive side of a component is always higher than the voltage on its
negative side.

Safety rules

Observe the following safety rules when using electrical equipment to control a
hydraulic system:

a. Always make sure that the electrical power supply is OFF when connecting or
disconnecting electrical leads or components.

b. Never leave any electrical lead unconnected. This could cause you to receive an
electrical shock when you touch the unconnected end of a lead while the
electrical power supply is on. This could also cause a short circuit to occur when
the unconnected end of a lead touches a metal surface.

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Basic Electricity

c. Make sure the power switch on the electrical power supply is set to the OFF
position before connecting the power supply line cord.

d. When connecting an electrical circuit, make sure the contact terminals are free
of dirt, oil, and water. Dirt and oil are insulators and do not allow a good
connection to be made. Water is a conductor and might make a connection
where it is not wanted.

It is also a good idea to review the safety rules regarding manual control of a
hydraulic system, as these rules still apply. These rules are located in the
DISCUSSION section of Exercise 1-1 in the Hydraulics, Fundamentals manual.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will measure voltage, resistance, and current in
an electrical control circuit. You will use the measured values to calculate the power
consumed by a solenoid.

In the second part of the exercise, you will test the operation of the electrical control
circuit connected in the first part of the exercise.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Measuring voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical control circuit

G 1. Connect the electrical control circuit shown in Figure 2-5.

G 2. Make sure the power switch on the 24-V DC Power Supply is set to the
OFF position. Plug the line cord of the 24-V DC Power Supply into
AC outlet.

G 3. Turn on the 24-V DC Power Supply by setting its power switch to the
I position. The red indicator lamp inside the power switch should light to
indicate that a 24-V DC voltage is now supplied between the red (+) and
black (!) banana jacks of the DC Power Supply.

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Basic Electricity

Figure 2-5. Electrical control circuit to connect.

G 4. Get the multimeter from its storage location. Connect the black probe of the
multimeter to the common terminal of the multimeter, and the red probe to
the multi-purpose (V@Ω@mA) terminal.

G 5. Measure the voltage supplied by the DC Power Supply. To do so, set the
multimeter selector to read DC volts. Then, connect the red probe of the
multimeter to the + terminal of the DC Power Supply and the black probe to
the ! terminal, as Figure 2-6 shows. Record below the voltage reading in
volts on your multimeter.

Note: If the multimeter displays a negative (!) voltage, it is wired

incorrectly. Check polarity and switch the multimeter probes.

Supply voltage = V

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Basic Electricity

Figure 2-6. Measuring the supply voltage.

G 6. Measure the voltage drop across solenoid SOL-A of the Directional Valve
by performing the following steps:

– Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the positive (+) side of the
solenoid, and the black probe to the negative (!) side. The + side of the
solenoid is the side that is nearest to the + side of the DC Power Supply
on the electrical diagram of the circuit (see Figure 2-5).

– Press pushbutton PB1 on the Pushbutton Station to allow the current to

flow through the circuit and observe the voltage reading in volts on the
multimeter. Record this voltage in Table 2-1 under “VOLTAGE DROP”.

VOLTAGE DROP (V) RESISTANCE (Ω) CURRENT (A)

Table 2-1. Solenoid data.

G 7. Disconnect the multimeter probes from the solenoid of the Directional Valve.

G 8. Measure the resistance of the solenoid of the Directional Valve by

performing the following steps:

– Turn off the 24-V DC Power Supply by setting its power switch to the
O position.

– Disconnect the solenoid of the Directional Valve from the electrical

circuit. To do so, remove the lead connecting the + side of the solenoid

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Basic Electricity

to the ! side of pushbutton PB1, and the lead connecting the ! side of
the solenoid to the ! terminal of the 24-V DC Power Supply.

– Set the multimeter to read ohms. Then, connect the red probe of the
multimeter to a terminal of the solenoid of the Directional Valve and the
black probe to the other terminal. Observe the resistance reading in
ohms on the multimeter. Record this resistance in Table 2-1 under
“RESISTANCE”.

Note: Never connect an ohmmeter or multimeter in ohmmeter

mode into a circuit while the DC Power Supply is on. To do so
could permanently damage the meter.

G 9. Disconnect the multimeter probes from the solenoid of the Directional Valve.

G 10. Measure the current flowing through the solenoid of the Directional Valve by
performing the following steps:

– Reconnect the ! side of the solenoid of the Directional Valve to the

! terminal of the 24-V DC Power Supply, using an electrical lead.

– Set the multimeter to read a DC current. Then, connect the red probe
of the multimeter to the ! side of pushbutton PB1, and the black probe
to the + side of the solenoid of the Directional Valve.

– Turn on the 24-V DC Power Supply. Press pushbutton PB1 to allow the
current to flow through the solenoid of the Directional Valve and observe
the current reading in milliamperes (mA) on the multimeter. Record this
current in Table 2-1 under “CURRENT”.

G 11. Release pushbutton PB1. According to the current reading on the multi-
meter, does the current flow through the solenoid when the pushbutton is
in its normal (released) condition? Why?

G 12. Turn off the 24-V DC Power Supply and the multimeter. Reconnect the
! side of pushbutton PB1 to the + side of the solenoid of the Directional
Valve using an electrical lead.

G 13. Based on the voltage drop and resistance recorded in Table 2-1, calculate
the current flowing through the solenoid of the Directional Valve using the
Ohm’s law.

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Basic Electricity

G 14. Compare the current value calculated in step 13 with the current value
recorded in Table 2-1. Can the Ohm’s law be used to determine the current
through a component when the voltage drop and resistance of this
component are known?

G Yes G No

G 15. How would the current flow through the solenoid change if the voltage drop
across the solenoid were doubled and the solenoid resistance held the
same?

G 16. Calculate the amount of power consumed by the solenoid of the Directional
Valve, based on the voltage drop and current recorded in Table 2-1.

G 17. Calculate the amount of power consumed by the solenoid of the Directional
Valve, based on the current and resistance recorded in Table 2-1.

G 18. Compare the power value calculated in step 17 with the power value
calculated in step 16. Can the consumed power be calculated using two
different methods?

G Yes G No

Testing the operation of an electrical control circuit

G 19. Connect the electrically controlled hydraulic system shown in Figure 2-7.
This will allow you to test the operation of the electrical control circuit used
in the first part of the exercise.

Note: To identify the ports on the solenoid-operated Directional

Valve, refer to the letters silkscreened on the valve subplate next
to the ports.

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Basic Electricity

Figure 2-7. Electrically controlled hydraulic system.

G 20. Turn on the 24-V DC Power Supply.

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Basic Electricity

G 21. Before starting the Power Unit, perform the following start-up procedure:

a. Make sure the hydraulic hoses are firmly connected.

b. Check the level of the oil in the Power Unit reservoir. Oil should cover,
but not be over, the black line above the temperature/oil level indicator
on the Power Unit. Add oil if required.
c. Put on safety glasses.
d. Make sure the power switch on the Power Unit is set to the OFF pos-
ition.
e. Plug the Power Unit line cord into an AC outlet.
f. Open the Relief Valve completely by turning its adjustment knob fully
counterclockwise.

G 22. Turn on the Power Unit by setting its power switch to ON. With the solenoid
of the Directional Valve in the deenergized condition, the Directional Valve
is in the normal, crossed-arrows condition and the pumped oil is blocked at
port B of this valve. As a result, the pumped oil is now being forced through
the Relief Valve. Pressure Gauge A now reads the minimum pressure
setting of the Relief Valve.

Increase the pressure setting of the Relief Valve to 2000 kPa (290 psi). To
do so, turn this valve adjustment knob clockwise until Pressure Gauge A
reads 2000 kPa (290 psi).

G 23. While observing the reading of Pressure Gauge A, press pushbutton PB1
to energize the solenoid of the Directional Valve and shift this valve to the
straight-arrows position. What happens to the reading of Pressure
Gauge A? Why?

G 24. Release pushbutton PB1 to de-energize the solenoid of the Directional

Valve. What happens to the reading of Pressure Gauge A? Why?

G 25. Turn off the Power Unit. Open the Relief Valve completely by turning its
adjustment knob fully counterclockwise.

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Basic Electricity

G 26. Turn off the 24-V DC Power Supply.

G 27. Disconnect all hoses and electrical leads and wipe off any hydraulic oil
residue. Return all hoses and leads to their storage rack.

G 28. Remove all electrical and hydraulic components from the Work Surface and
wipe off any hydraulic oil residue. Return all components to their storage
location.

G 29. Clean up any hydraulic oil from the floor and the trainer. Properly dispose
of any towels and rags used to clean up oil.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you learned how to measure voltage, resistance and current in an
electrical circuit.

You measured the voltage drop across a component by connecting a multimeter in

voltmeter mode across the component terminals, with the power supply turned on.

You measured the resistance of a component by disconnecting it from the circuit and
by connecting a multimeter in ohmmeter mode across the component terminals.

Finally, you measured the current flow through a component by connecting a

multimeter in ammeter mode in series with the component. You learned that when
the voltage drop and resistance of a component are known, the Ohm’s law can be
used to calculate the current through this component.

You also learned two methods of calculating the power consumed by a load.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)?

2. What are the units of measurement for voltage, resistance, current, and power?

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Basic Electricity

3. What is the mathematical relationship between current, voltage drop, and

resistance?

4. In a DC circuit, what is meant by the “positive (+) side” of a component?

5. Describe the method used to measure the current flowing through a component.

6. What are the two formulas for calculating the power consumed by an electrical
component?

7. Can an ohmmeter or multimeter in ohmmeter mode be used to measure the

resistance of an energized solenoid? Why?

2-16
 Exercise 2-2

Ladder Diagrams

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

• To explain how a ladder diagram relates to the hydraulic circuitry;

• To assemble and operate basic ladder diagrams;
• To learn the rules for drawing ladder diagrams;
• To describe the operation of an electromechanical control relay.

DISCUSSION

The electrical control circuits you have seen until now were represented by pictorial-
type schematic diagrams. There are other methods of drawing schematic diagrams,
but ladder diagrams is the most popular method and probably the simplest and
easiest.

Ladder diagrams graphically show which switches must be closed or open to allow
the current to flow to an output load. Figure 2-8 shows the general appearance of a
ladder diagram. The vertical lines on the left and right sides of the diagram represent
the terminals of the power supply. The left line is the “hot” (+) terminal, and the right
line, the “ground” (!) terminal.

The horizontal lines are called rungs. Each rung basically consists of an input
element, an output load, and electrical wires joining these two devices. Input
elements, as pushbuttons, switches, and relay contacts, are located on the left side
of the rung. Output loads, as lamps, valve solenoids, and relay coils, are located on
the right side of the rung.

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Ladder Diagrams

Figure 2-8. Basic ladder diagram.

When the input element on a rung is closed, it forms a continuous path, or closed
circuit, to the output load, allowing the current to flow from the positive (+) terminal
of the power supply to energize the output load. In Figure 2-8, for example,

• pressing pushbutton PB-1 causes normally open (N.O.) switch contact PB1 in
rung 1 to go closed and lamp L1 to turn on. When the pushbutton is released,
contact PB1 returns to its normal state, which is open, causing lamp L1 to turn
off;

• pressing pushbutton PB2 causes normally closed (N.C.) switch contact PB2 in
rung 2 to go open and lamp L2 to turn off. When pushbutton PB2 is released,
contact PB2 returns to its normal state, which is closed, causing lamp L2 to turn
on.

Series and parallel logic

Two or more input elements can be connected on a rung in series or parallel to form
AND and OR logic, as Figure 2-9 shows.

• Rung 1 of the ladder diagram is an example of series (AND) logic. Both switch
contacts must close in order for lamp L1 to turn on.

• Rung 2 of the ladder diagram is an example of parallel (OR) logic. Only one of
the switch contacts has to close in order for lamp L2 to turn on.

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Ladder Diagrams

Figure 2-9. Series (AND) and parallel (OR) logic.

Several input elements can be connected in various combinations of series (AND)

and parallel (OR) to perform additional logic functions.

Rules for drawing ladder diagrams

1. The ladder diagram must show only electrical control devices such as switches,
relay coils, and solenoids. Directional valves, cylinders, and other hydraulic
devices never appear on a ladder diagram. These devices are drawn on a
hydraulic diagram.

2. Output loads such as lamps, relay coils, and valve solenoids must be drawn on
the right side of the ladder diagram, with one terminal connected directly to the
! terminal of the power supply. Load devices should never be connected directly
to the + terminal of the power supply.

There may be two or more output loads on the same rung. In that case, the loads
must be connected in parallel. Loads must never be connected in series on the
same rung.

Insofar as possible, output loads used to perform the control logic such as relay
coils should be drawn in the upper rungs of the ladder. Output loads used for
hydraulic control such as valve solenoids should be drawn in the lower rungs of
the ladder. This will make it easier for another person to understand how the
ladder works.

3. Input elements such as pushbuttons, switches, and relay contacts must be drawn
on the left side of the ladder diagram. They should never be connected directly
to the ! terminal of the power supply. There must be at least one input element
per rung.

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Ladder Diagrams

4. All ladder rungs must be numbered.

5. Each device in the ladder diagram must be identified with a representative

abbreviation. For example, PB is an abbreviation for pushbutton, and CR is an
abbreviation for relay coil.

Contacts operated by a relay coil must be identified with the same abbreviation
as the coil which operates them. For example, contacts operated by relay
coil CR1 are labelled CR1-A, CR1-B, CR1-C, etc.

6. All components must be drawn on horizontal lines (rungs). They must not be
connected on the vertical lines, which represent the power supply terminals.

Electromechanical control relays

Electromechanical control relays are widely used in ladder diagrams to perform

complex logic functions. An electromechanical control relay consists of a solenoid
coil, a magnetic core, an armature, and one or more sets of normally open (N.O.)
and normally closed (N.C.) contacts. When a current flows through the relay coil, the
magnetic core and the armature are both magnetized and attract each other, causing
the armature to move towards the core. This switches the relay contacts to their
activated state. N.O. contacts go closed, while N.C. contacts go open. When the
current is removed from the relay coil, the armature is moved back to its original
position by a spring, which returns the relay contacts to their normal state.

Figure 2-10 shows the Relay supplied with your Hydraulics Trainer. It contains a
solenoid coil and three sets of N.O. and N.C. contacts. The Relay is of the triple-pole,
double-throw (3PDT) type, because it simultaneously switches three conducting
parts back and forth between two positions.

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Ladder Diagrams

Figure 2-10. 3PDT Relay.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will test a basic ladder diagram.

In the second part of the exercise, you will test ladder diagrams using series (AND)
and parallel (OR) logic.

In the third part of the exercise, you will test a ladder diagram using a control relay.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

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Ladder Diagrams

PROCEDURE

Basic ladder diagram

G 1. Make sure the power switch of the 24-V DC Power Supply is set to the
OFF position. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-11.

Figure 2-11. Testing the operation of a basic ladder diagram.

G 2. Turn on the 24-V DC Power Supply by setting its power switch to the
I position.

G 3. Does lamp L1 light?

G Yes G No

G 4. Press pushbutton PB1. What happens to lamp L1? Why? Explain by

referring to the ladder diagram in Figure 2-11.

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Ladder Diagrams

G 5. Does lamp L2 light?

G Yes G No

G 6. Press pushbutton PB2. What happens to lamp L2? Why? Explain by

referring to the ladder diagram in Figure 2-11.

G 7. Turn off the 24-V DC Power Supply by setting its switch to the O position.

Ladder diagrams using series (AND) and parallel (OR) logic

G 8. Connect the series (AND) logic circuit shown in Figure 2-12.

Figure 2-12. Testing a ladder diagram using series (AND) logic.

G 9. Turn on the 24-V DC Power Supply.

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Ladder Diagrams

G 10. Press pushbutton PB1. Does lamp L1 turn on?

G Yes G No

G 11. Press pushbutton PB2. Does lamp L1 turn on?

G Yes G No

G 12. Press both pushbuttons PB1 and PB2. Does lamp L1 turn on? Why?
Explain by referring to the ladder diagram in Figure 2-12.

G 13. In a ladder rung containing two switch contacts in series, what is the
condition required for the output load to energize?

G 14. Turn off the 24-V DC Power Supply. Connect the parallel (OR) logic circuit
shown in Figure 2-13.

Figure 2-13. Testing a ladder diagram using parallel (OR) logic.

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Ladder Diagrams

G 15. Turn on the 24-V DC Power Supply. Press pushbutton PB1. Does lamp L1
turn on?

G Yes G No

G 16. Release pushbutton PB1. Press pushbutton PB2. Does lamp L1 turn on?

G Yes G No

G 17. In a ladder rung containing two switch contacts in parallel, what is the
condition required for the output load to energize?

G 18. Turn off the 24-V DC Power Supply.

Ladder diagram using a control relay

G 19. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-14. Notice that coil CR of the Relay
is not polarized, which means that it does not matter which coil terminal is
connected to pushbutton PB1 and which coil terminal is connected to the
! terminal of the 24-V DC Power Supply. Either way, the coil will still
energize and shift the relay contacts to their opposite state.

Figure 2-14. Testing a ladder diagram using a control relay.

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Ladder Diagrams

G 20. Turn on the 24-V DC Power Supply. Since pushbutton PB1 is not pressed,
N.O. contact PB1 in rung 1 should be open and relay coil CR1 should be
deenergized. Therefore, N.C. relay contact CR1-B in rung 3 should be
closed and lamp L2 should be on. Is lamp L2 now on?

G Yes G No

G 21. Press pushbutton PB1. What happens to lamps L1 and L2? Why? Explain
by referring to the ladder diagram in Figure 2-14.

G 22. Release pushbutton PB1. What happens to the lamps? Why?

G 23. From your observations, does a relay provide more than one contact,
allowing one relay to control more than one electrical component?

G Yes G No

G 24. Turn off the 24-V DC Power Supply.

G 25. Disconnect all electrical leads. Remove all electrical components from the
Work Surface. Return all leads and components to their storage location.

CONCLUSION

In the first part of the exercise, you tested the operation of a basic ladder diagram.
You learned that a complete conducting path (closed circuit) must occur on a rung
in order for the output load on this rung to energize. You saw that a N.O. contact
keeps the circuit open until closed, and that a N.C. contact keeps the circuit closed
until open.

In the second part of the exercise, you tested the operation of ladder diagrams using
series (AND) and parallel (OR) logic. In a ladder diagram using several input
switches in series, all switch contacts must close in order for the output load to
energize. In a ladder diagram using several input switches in parallel, only one of the
switch contacts has to close in order for the output load to energize.

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Ladder Diagrams

In the third part of the exercise, you tested the operation of a ladder diagram using
a control relay. You learned that when a relay coil is energized, the relay contacts
shift to their opposite condition. Normally open (N.O.) relay contacts close and
normally closed (N.C.) contacts open. When the relay coil is de-energized, the relay
contacts revert to their normal condition.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What do the vertical lines on the left and right sides of a ladder diagram
represent?

2. Where should input switches and relay contacts be drawn on a ladder diagram?

3. Where should relay coils and valve solenoids be drawn on a ladder diagram?

4. Should a solenoid-operated directional valve appear in a ladder diagram or a

hydraulic diagram?

5. Should the solenoid of a solenoid-operated directional valve appear in a ladder

diagram or a hydraulic diagram?

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Ladder Diagrams

6. In Figure 2-15, draw a ladder diagram of a circuit that operates as follows:

A. Pressing pushbutton PB1 will cause relay coil CR1 to energize and lamp L1
to turn on.

B. Pressing pushbutton PB2 at any time will de-energize lamp L1.

Figure 2-15. Ladder diagram for review question 6.

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