In the fifth century B.C.

, when the Greek city-states were defending their way of life against the invading
Persians, Rome was only a small town in Italy. In the centuries that followed, Rome created the largest
and most powerful empire of the ancient world. At its height the Roman Empire stretched from the
island of Britain to the sands of Arabia. Roman rule brought peace, order, and civilized life to the
Mediterranean world. It united many different peoples in a common civilization under one set of laws.
People throughout the Empire were proud to say, "Civis Romanus sum"-"I am a citizen of Rome."

The Greeks had developed ideas of democratic government and ex plored new forms in literature,
architecture, science, and philosophy. The Romans adopted much from Greece and added their own
talents in engi neering, government, and above all, law,

This chapter describes how Rome grew from a republic into an empire.

1. THE ROMANS BUILD A STRONG REPUBLIC

Early in its history, Rome was a small town on the Tiber River in the central part of the Italian peninsula.
This location gave Rome several ad vantages. The fertile plains could support a large population. The
Tiber provided a route to the sea, giving Rome the opportunity for for eign trade. Rome was located in
the heart of Italy and could expand in many directions.

The Greeks and Etruscans influence Ro man culture. The early settlers of Rome were a people called the
Latins, who were one of many different peoples living in the Italian peninsula. Greek colonists had
established city-states in Sicily and southern Italy, and the Romans adopted their alphabet, military
techniques, and styles of literature, art, and architecture. A people called the Etruscans (ee-TRUS-kunz)
lived in prosperous trading cities to the north and west of Rome. From the Etruscans the Ro mans
learned practical skills in sanitation, road building, architecture, and pottery making. By about the
seventh century B.C., the Etruscans controlled Rome and much of the land nearby. Etruscan kings ruled
Rome for over a hundred years. During their reign. Rome grew into a great city built on seven hills along
the Tiber. The Forum - a central public square - was built between two of the hills.

The Romans establish a government with out a king. In 509 B.C., according to tradition, the Romans
drove out their Etruscan ruler and established a republic - a government without a king. While the
Roman Republic had no king, it was not a democracy like Athens. Its leaders all came from the class of
wealthy land owners, who were called patricians (puh-TRISH uns). Two officials called consuls directed
the daily affairs of governing and also led the army. Consuls held office for only a year; there was little
risk that they would gain too much power or make themselves king.
A 300-member council of patricians, the Senate, was the most powerful part of the gov ernment of the
Republic. The Senate controlled Rome's finances and foreign affairs. In the Sen ate. Rome's most
influential citizens debated vital issues and made the important decisions affecting the state. Most
senators had held other high government positions. They believed that they honored themselves and
their families by serving Rome well. The military banners carried by the Roman armies bore the letters
SPQR These letters stood for Latin words that meant "the Senate and the people of Rome."

The people gain a voice in govern ment. Assemblies of Roman citizens made up another part of the
Roman government. The membership and the powers of these assem blies changed over the years. In
the early years of the Republic, an assembly of soldier-citizens made laws and approved the election of
gov ernment officials.

The common people, or plebeians (plih BEE-unz), had little say in the government. They took part in an
assembly, but it had much less power than the Senate. Roman laws worked against the plebeians, even
though they were citizens. They could not hold high govern ment positions or marry patricians. The ple
beians' struggle to gain equality with the patricians went on for 200 years.

Early in the Republic, plebeians threat ened to stop serving in the army and paying taxes. Since Rome
was constantly at war with its neighbors in Italy, this was a serious threat to the Republic, To avoid civil
war between the different groups within the country, the plebeians were given the right to form their
own assembly. It could pass laws affecting only the common people. It also elected officials called
tribunes, who protected the plebeians' rights. In 451 B.C. the plebeians succeeded in having Roman laws
collected and written down for the first time. Known as the Twelve Tables, these laws gave the common
people some pro tection against unfair decisions by patrician judges.

The plebeians' position continued to im prove, especially that of wealthy plebeian mer chants. Plebeians
could no longer be enslaved for debt. They also gained the right to marry patricians and hold the office
of consul. Even tually they won the right to become members of the Senate.

By 287 B.C., plebeians and patricians had equal legal rights. Nevertheless, real political power remained
in the hands of the patricians and wealthy plebeians, who made up the nobil ity. These nobles still held
the highest offices in the Republic and dominated the Senate
Rome becomes a military power. Despite the long struggle between patricians and ple beians, Rome
continued to expand. The Ro mans showed a devotion to their city, a tough ness of character, and a
genius for warfare and diplomacy. They knew how to wage war successfully, how to gain allies, and how
to treat a defeated enemy. By the middle of the third century B.C., Rome ruled most of Italy.

The army had been important throughout Rome's history. In 390 B.C., after an attack by people called
Gauls from north of Italy, the Senate required plebeians as well as patricians to serve as soldiers. The
sturdy Roman farmer made an excellent soldier. He was loyal to his city and strong enough to march
thirty miles a day carrying sixty pounds of armor, weapons, and supplies.

The strength of the Roman army was its superior discipline and organization. Roman troops used the
same weapons as their enemies swords, spears, daggers, bows and arrows, and stones. While their
opponents often fought like an unorganized mob, the Romans adopted and improved upon the tight
battle formation used by Greek foot soldiers. The basic army unit was the legion. It was made up of
3,000 to 6,000 infantry soldiers and 100 or more troops on horseback. Fighting as part of such a unit
strengthened the determination and confidence of the Roman soldier.

Ancient Italy

The city of Rome was located in the central part of Italy, a peninsula of southern Europe. What
mountains stretched for much of the length of Italy? What island lay south of the peninsula?

"The consuls could cancel each other's decisions by using the power to veto, the Latin word meaning "I
forbid."

Growth of Roman Power, 264-133 B.C. During the Punic Wars, Rome gained land outside Italy. What
gains had Rome made by 201 B.C.? After that date, what lands did Rome take over?

Rome gains allies in Italy. Despite the strength of its army, Rome could not have con quered Italy
without the help of other peoples of the peninsula. Through wise diplomacy, Rome made allies of some
former enemies. Some defeated cities and peoples were granted Roman citizenship; others were
permitted to keep their local self-government. Rome gave the conquered peoples protection and main
tained order throughout the Italian peninsula.

Its conquests in Italy gave Rome the addi tional soldiers it needed to expand further. Be sides nearly
300,000 male Roman citizens, there were some 700,000 allies in Italy. Some Roman statesmen opposed
involvement in wars outside Italy. Rome's growing power, however, brought it into conflict with the
other states of the Mediterranean world.
Rome and Carthage go to war. In 264 B.C. Rome went to war with the North African city state of
Carthage (KAR-thidj). Founded by the Phoenicians (page 53), Carthage had become a strong sea power.
It controlled large areas in the western Mediterranean, including parts of Spain, North Africa, and many
islands. Rome considered Carthage a threat to its allies in southern Italy and to the supply of grain from
the island of Sicily. The series of wars that Rome fought with Carthage are called the Pu nic (PYOO-nik)'
Wars.

Rome began the war with a stronger army, for it could call on its Italian allies for extra sol diers. The
Carthaginians, on the other hand, had a superior navy. The Romans quickly built their own fleet and won
victories both at sea and in Sicily. Carthage eventually was forced to make peace in 241 B.C. Rome's
victory in the First Punic War gave it Sicily as its first province, territory that was outside the Italian
peninsula (see map).

Hannibal invades Roman territory. As the Carthaginians continued to expand in Spain, Rome planned to
attack them there. In 218 B.C., however, the Carthaginian general Hanni bal decided to strike at Rome
by invading Italy from the north. This marked the start of the Second Punic War. With his entire army
and a number of war elephants, Hannibal traveled northeast through Spain, crossed what is now
southern France, and reached the Alps in northern Italy. The Carthaginians struggled across the steep
and icy mountain passes into Italy. The Gauls who lived there joined the Carthaginians against Rome,
and even some Roman allies helped the invaders.

Moving southward through Italy, Hanni bal showed his military genius at the Battle of Cannae (KAN-ee)
in 216 B.C. When the Romans attacked, Hannibal pulled back the forces in the middle of his battle line.
To the Romans, it looked like the start of a retreat. Falling for the trick, the whole Roman army surged
forward in pursuit. Hannibal's cavalry, which was waiting on both ends of the line, swung around behind
the Romans. Trapped in a pocket, four legions of Roman soldiers were killed or captured.

The people of Rome were shocked by the costly defeat. "The streets were loud with the wailing and
weeping of women," wrote the his torian Livy. Even worse, the Romans feared that Hannibal would now
march on Rome it self. These were the Republic's worst days.

Hannibal is defeated. Though Hannibal continued to win battles in Italy, he lacked the military strength
to capture the city of Rome. Moreover, the Roman allies near the city re mained loyal. To relieve the
pressure on the city of Rome, an army led by the Roman gen eral Scipio (SKIP-ee-oh) attacked the Cartha
ginians in Spain, preventing help from being sent to Hannibal. In 204 B.C. the Romans also invaded
North Africa. To protect his home land, Hannibal returned to Carthage. He was defeated by Scipio in the
Battle of Zama in 202 B.C. This was Hannibal's first defeat, and it ended the war. This second victory over
Car thage gave Rome even more land (map, page 98).

The Romans destroy Carthage. In 146 B.C. Rome defeated Carthage in a third war. Al though Carthage
had become too weak to be a threat, many Romans wanted to crush it per manently. Driven by old
hatreds and the mem ory of Hannibal's victories, the Romans burned Carthage to the ground and sold its
survivors into slavery. The region became a Roman

province. The Romans gain control of the Greek world. The defeat of Carthage in the Second Punic War
had given Rome control of the west ern Mediterranean Sea. The lands of the east ern Mediterranean
still belonged to cities and Hellenistic kingdoms that had arisen after the breakup of Alexander's empire.
Shortly after Hannibal's defeat, Rome went to war against his ally, the kingdom of Macedonia. By 196
B.C. Rome had defeated the Macedonians and taken over as the "protector" of the Greek city states in
Asia Minor. Other victories followed in Greece and Asia Minor. By 133 B.C. Rome had extended its rule
over the entire Mediterra nean, including all the Greek world.

*Punic is derived from the Latin word for "Phoenician."

ROMAN MILITARY MIGHT

The statue at right shows one of Rome's famed citizen-soldiers who helped to build an empire. In battle
Roman soldiers protected themselves by positioning their shields in a formation called the tortoise
(below). The sculpture is part of a column built to honor the emperor Trajan (page 106).

2. THE REPUBLIC COMES TO AN END

While Rome's wars brought it new lands and power, critical social and political problems de veloped at
home. Some leaders attempted to solve these problems, but the Republic began to decline.

Rome faces a crisis in agriculture. The de cline of the Republic began with a crisis in agri culture that
brought ruin to thousands of small farmers. Hannibal's invasion had destroyed farms and farmland;
other farms had been ne glected while their owners had been away fight ing. Since grain and other farm
products were being sent to Rome from conquered lands, prices in Italy fell and so did the farmers' in
comes. Lacking the money to rebuild, many farmers sold out to landowners who had grown wealthy
during the war. The newly rich owners created large estates known as latifundia. They found workers for
their farms among the thou sands of slaves taken as prisoners during the Punic Wars.

Many of the small farmers who had nei ther land nor jobs moved to the Roman cities to look for work,
but few were able to find jobs there. Although many of them had been sol diers for Rome, they now
became part of a huge class of unemployed and resentful city poor people.

The Gracchus brothers work for re form. The Gracchus (GRAH-kus) family of Rome were wealthy
plebeians who were active in politics. Tiberius Gracchus, elected tribune in 133 B.C., promised to help
the farmers. He called for taking public land and distributing it among the landless farmers. Tiberius also
wanted to enforce an ancient law that limited the size of farms on public land. To many land holding
senators, however, both these proposals appeared as threats. They also feared that Ti berius was
seeking to stir up the poor people in order to gain political power for himself. When Tiberius sought re-
election as tribune, violence broke out. Tiberius and 300 of his followers were killed in the rioting.
Tiberius' death was blamed on a group of senators.

Gaius Gracchus, a younger brother of Ti berius, became tribune ten years later and urged even more
reforms. He had grain given to the poor, opened up more land for the farm ers, and secured more rights
for the middle class. In 121 B.C. fighting broke out between the Romans who supported Gaius and those
who opposed, his policies. Gaius and several thou sand people were killed.

Roman politics become corrupt and vio lent. The Roman Republic in the second cen tury B.C. was very
different from the Rome that had defeated Carthage. Fear of Carthage had kept the Romans united and
loyal. Now they were often bitterly divided by domestic issues and conflicts between rich and poor. As
long as there were thousands of land-hungry farmers and unemployed city poor, there was danger of
riots and violence. The Senate attacks on the Gracchus brothers introduced violence as a means of
dealing with political opponents.

The Senate could not provide leadership in these years of turmoil. Many patricians be came more
concerned with keeping their power and wealth than with promoting the welfare of Rome. The common
people were ready to fol low leaders who promised them food and enter tainment. The Republic had
passed the peak of its greatness.

Roman slaves revolt. Another cause of un rest in the Republic was fear of the thousands of slaves in the
population. Most were war cap tives transported from their homes to Italy. While slave uprisings were
not common, the fe rocity of those that did break out terrified the Romans. In 135 B.C., slaves on the
island of Sic ily revolted and captured several towns before being subdued. In 73 B.C. the slave Spartacus
proclaimed a war to free slaves in Italy. Some 90,000 slaves ran away to join his revolt. For two years the
slave army defeated Roman forces and devastated southern Italy. The revolt ended when Spartacus was
killed in battle. The victorious general, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had 6,000 slaves put to death by
crucifixion. Ambitious generals gain power. During

this period of unrest, it was easy for powerful and ambitious military leaders to gain popular support. In
105 B.C. Gaius Marius, a popular general, began to recruit soldiers from the job. less poor of the cities.
Before this time, only men who owned property could be Roman sol diers. They had served in the army
out of loy. alty to Rome. The landless Romans of the cities, on the other hand, volunteered for serv ice
because Marius had promised them money. loot from conquered peoples, and land when the fighting
was over. These soldiers' loyalty was to Marius rather than to the government of Rome.

Other ambitious commanders followed Marius' example in building up private armies. A general who
had the confidence and support of his soldiers could intimidate the Senate and influence lawmaking.
Marius' greatest rival was another commander, Lucius Cornelius Sulla. The bloody wars between the
supporters of these two rival generals finally came to an end with Sulla's capture of Rome. Sulla used his
victory to restore the authority of the Senate, though he kept the real power for himself. In 82 B.C. Sulla
was given the title of dictator. This position, granted only in times of crisis, carried absolute power but
was supposed to be limited to a term of six months. Actually Sulla re mained dictator for two years,
using his power to have many opponents murdered.

The First Triumvirate is formed. The am bitions of military commanders continued to menace the
Republic. Using their troops for their own political advantage, generals sought to run the state. In 60 B.C.
three ambitious and wealthy military heroes banded together in what was known as the First
Triumvirate (try UM-vih-rut). The three were Gnaeus Pompey known as Pompey the Great for his
victories in the east; Crassus, the victor over Spartacus and one of the richest men in Rome; and Julius
Caesar (SEE-zur). The three had few aims in common except their opposition to the Senate. Each was
jealous of the other's power, but they at first cooperated to gain the post of consul for Caesar.

ROMAN DAILY LIFE

Most Romans in the Republic led simple lives. The sculpture at right shows a farmer on his way to
market. In the background is a shrine to the Roman gods. Farmers took their goods-olive oil, grain,
vegetables, fruit, meat, and herbs- to shops in nearby towns. Women ran a number of these businesses,
such as the poultry market (below). Many Romans along the coast fished for a living (below right). The
family was highly respected in Rome, and its members - unlike Greek families - usually dined together
(bottom). Roman sculptors were skilled at portraying people. This carving is of Caesar, whose name
became a title used in Germany (kaiser) and Russia (czar).

Knowing he also needed the backing of an army to succeed in politics, Caesar then took command of the
Roman legions in Gaul. Over the next ten years Caesar showed a genius for leadership and military
strategy. He brought all of Gaul (roughly the area now called France) under Rome's control and briefly
invaded Brit ain. Caesar described his successes in his book The Gallic Wars.

Caesar takes control of Rome. In Rome, Pompey was gaining political power and the support of the
Senate. In 49 B.C. he persuaded the Senate to order Caesar to return home without his army. To obey
would have left Cae sar without power. Instead, Caesar deliberately led his troops into Italy. Civil war
began again. Caesar defeated Pompey's armies in Italy and in Greece and went on to more victories in
Egypt, Asia Minor, Africa, and Spain. Return ing to Rome in 46 B.C. as its greatest hero, he easily took
over the government and was named both dictator and consul.

Caesar made many worthwhile reforms that won him popular support in both the prov inces and the
cities. He reorganized the govern ment in the provinces, lowering taxes and mak ing the governors
responsible to him. To aid the poor in Rome, he resettled 100,000 army veterans and others in new
colonies and gave them land to farm. He granted citizenship to more people outside Italy. Caesar also
put into effect a new and accurate calendar, the Julian calendar. In 44 a.c., along with many other
honors, he was named dictator for life.

Caesar is assassinated. Caesar's power, success, and popularity alarmed many nobles and senators. They
feared that he would de stroy the Senate and become a king, thereby ending the Republic. To prevent
this, on March 15, 44 B.C., a group of nobles led by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius stabbed Caesar to
death in the Senate.

Octavian's victory brings the Republic to an end. The death of Caesar ended the danger of one-man rule,
but it plunged Rome back into civil war. A second triumvirate was formed by three of Caesar's
supporters Mark An tony, Lepidus, and Octavian (Caesar's adopted son). They defeated the armies of
Brutus and Cassius, but Antony and Octavian then became rivals. In 31 B.C., in a naval battle off the
coast of Greece, Octavian's fleet crushed the com bined navies of Antony and Cleopatra, Queen of
Egypt. This victory made Octavian the un challenged leader of Rome. The Roman Re public had come to
an end.

Growth of Roman Power by 44 B.C

3. Rome Unites a Vast Empire

Octavian's triumph in 31 B.C. marked the end of the Roman Republic. It also brought an end to a century
of political murder and civil war. Throughout the Mediterranean world, people hoped for peace and
orderly government. These became the goals of the new Empire. Octavian becomes emperor. Like
Caesar, Octavian believed that the republican system no longer worked. He was convinced that only a
single strong ruler could restore order in Rome. Caesar had been assassinated for his ambition to rule
alone. By the time of Octa vian, however, many nobles had been killed in the struggle for power, and
others now realized that Rome needed strong rule. Octavian won the support of the Senate by allowing
it to keep some of its power. Octavian encouraged the Senate to give him advice, permitted it to ad
minister some of the provinces, and let it have its own treasury.

In 27 B.C. the Senate gave Octavian a title that was also used for the gods Augustus, meaning "honored
and majestic." This became the name by which he was known. He also took the honorary title "caesar,"
which most later rulers added to their own names. Augustus (or Augustus Caesar) was also referred to
as "first citizen." which implied that Rome was still a republic. In reality, however, Augustus' rise to
power marked the beginning of the Roman Empire.

Augustus restores order throughout Roman territory. Augustus was not a power-hungry ty rant but a
creative and responsible statesman. He used the power he had been given to bring order and good
government to both Rome and its far-flung provinces.

Ambitious military leaders with their own armies had been one of the chief causes of dis order in the
Republic. To avoid such disrup tion, Augustus took complete control of the army. He gained the loyalty
of his soldiers giving veterans large bonuses and land in Italy or the provinces. This gave Rome a well
trained and loyal army that kept order and guarded the frontiers of the Empire.

Augustus tried to improve government in -the provinces. He carefully supervised the ac tions of
provincial governors and took direct control of provinces that might cause trouble. leaving the Senate to
oversee the provinces that were peaceful. To encourage loyalty to Rome and to himself, Augustus
granted citizenship to more people in the Empire, including men from the provinces who served in the
Roman army. Former soldiers and their families gained many benefits as well as the feeling that Au
gustus was interested in their welfare.
Augustus also tried to restore those qual ities that had made the Romans a great people devotion to the
Roman state, close family ties, hard work, discipline, and simple living. Laws were passed to encourage
people to marry and raise families. Augustus sponsored the building of roads, water systems, and other
projects that both improved people's lives and jobs for some of the poor in the cities. While
unemployment and poverty still existed in Rome, the government gave free or low-cost grain to the
poor.

ROMAN EMPERORS

Roman artists portrayed the emperors in many forms of art. Augustus, honored as one of the gods, is
shown in armor decorated with scenes from Roman myths (right). The portrait of Tiberius (top right) is
made of carved glass. Roman emperors were also honored with equestrian statues - statues that
showed them on horseback. The only equestrian statue that remains from ancient Rome is one of
Marcus Aurelius (above).

The Roman Peace begins. Augustus died in A.D. 14. His rule had brought Rome peace and a large
measure of prosperity. It intro duced a period known as Pax Romana (PAKS roh-MAH-nuh) - "the Roman
Peace." For 200 years, from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180, the vast Roman Empire enjoyed just and orderly
government. The ancient world had never before expe rienced such a long period of stability. Augustus'
successors lack his abilities.

The Empire had no law of succession; that is, there was no rule stating how the next emperor I would be
chosen. Most rulers chose their heirs from members of their family. The first four emperors after
Augustus were related to him or to his second wife, Livia. They are known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
None of these rulers was equal to Augustus in statesmanship, although they maintained many of his
policies that kept the empire strong.

With the rule of Augustus' stepson Ti berius (A.D. 14-37), plots and violence again became common in
Roman politics. Tiberius ran the Empire well, however, unlike the next emperor, Caligula (kah-LIG-yoo-
lah). Caligula was both cruel and insane and after four years of rule was assassinated by members of the
im perial guard. These soldiers then chose a peace ful scholar named Claudius to be emperor. Claudius
restored order during his reign (A.D. 41-54) and backed the military expedition that made Britain part of
the Empire.
The last of the Julio-Claudian line was the emperor Nero, Claudius' stepson. Nero began his reign well
but soon turned to bloodthirsty violence. When Rome was devastated by fire in A.D. 64, Nero blamed it
on the Christians and began to persecute them. Four years later the army rebelled against him, and Nero
com mitted suicide.

Military leaders become emperors. In the year following Nero's death, lawlessness swept Rome as
military commanders competed for the throne. After the execution of two emperors and the suicide of
another within a year, the army chose Vespasian as emperor. In his ten year reign (A.D. 69-79),
Vespasian restored dis cipline in the army and in the administration of the Empire. He also put down
uprisings in the provinces of Gaul and Judaea (joo-DEE-uh).

The Jews revolt against Rome. Roman rule in Judaea clashed with Jewish loyalties and with the desire of
the Jews to re-establish their ancient kingdom. In A.D. 66, they had begun a full-scale revolt, and the
emperor Nero had sent Vespasian to Judaea to put down the rebellion. When Vespasian's soldiers
declared him emperor, he returned to Rome, leaving his son Titus to carry on the war. In A.D. 70, Ro
man soldiers captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Temple. About a thousand Jews took ref. uge in the
mountaintop fortress of Masada (muh-SAH-dah) and for nearly two years re sisted the Roman siege. The
fortress finally fell to the Romans in A.D. 73. Rather than surren der their last outpost, nearly all the
defenders of Masada committed suicide.

The "good emperors" bring stable rule. Titus and his younger brother Domitian fol. their father as
emperor. After Domitian's assassination in A.D. 96, the Senate chose a re spected senator, Nerva. To
avoid the violence that usually accompanied the choice of an em peror, Nerva introduced a wise new
policy. He adopted as his son and named as his successor a man with proven ability - Trajan (TRAY-jun),
the Spanish-born military governor of the re gion north of Italy. The adoptive system introduced by
Nerva was followed by later em perors until A.D. 180. It ensured a succession of competent rulers who
are sometimes called the "Good Emperors,"

The Roman Empire reached its greatest size under Trajan's rule (A.D. 98-117). He brought Mesopotamia
under Roman rule and added new lands north of the Danube and east of the Black Sea. A wise and
popular ruler, he also eased taxes in the provinces, provided aid for the poor, and had many buildings
con structed in Rome.

Trajan's successor, Hadrian (A.D. 117 138), devoted his reign to making the empire secure rather than
adding more territory. He encouraged people in the provinces to join the armies that guarded their
borders. In the prov ince of Britain, he had a defensive wall built along the frontier. Hadrian admired
Greek cul ture and was a poet and amateur architect.
In A.D. 132-133 Hadrian suppressed a sec ond Jewish revolt in Judaea and imposed harsh punishments
on the rebels. The Romans re named the province Syria Palestina (or Pales tine), forbade Jews to enter
Jerusalem except once a year, and encouraged non-Jews to settle there. Most of the Jews who survived
were sold into slavery or sought refuge in other lands.

Trade in the Roman Empire

People in the Roman Empire traded extensively with each other and with other lands Which country
grew grain for Rome's bakeries? Where were the mines that supplied Rome with metals? What products
came from North Africa? from Asia?

The Pax Romana comes to an end. The last of the emperors chosen by the adoptive sys tem was Marcus
Aurelius (uh-REE-lee-us), who began his rule in A.D. 161. He was a scholarly man who followed the ideas
of the Stoic philos ophers (page 91), but he was forced to concen trate on border wars with the
Germanic tribes. Marcus Aurelius abandoned the adoptive sys tem, which had worked so effectively,
and chose his son, Commodus, as his successor. Commodus was not fit to rule. His succession to the
throne in A.D. 180 marked the end of the Pax Romana.

Peace and order bring prosperity. During the 200 years of the Pax Romana, Roman ar mies extended the
borders of the Empire in Asia Minor, secured the frontiers in Europe at the Rhine and Danube rivers, and
conquered most of Britain. These troops guarded against civil wars within the cities and prevented war
fare between cities.

The Pax Romana was generally a time of order and good government. The Romans dem onstrated a
great talent for organizing and governing, Roman governors, assisted by ca pable officials, enforced
Roman law and settled disputes in the provinces. At first, almost all government officials were upper-
class Romans, but in time many talented people in the prov inces became administrators.

Roman rule brought prosperity. The Ro mans built roads, improved harbors, cleared forests, drained
swamps, irrigated deserts, and turned undeveloped land into prosperous farms. Trade flourished as
goods were carried over roads built by Roman engineers and made safe by Roman soldiers. Products
from all over the Roman Empire flowed into Rome.

Landmarks in Technology
ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman engineers and architects made outstanding tech nological achievements. Their buildings and
public works helped make people's lives more comfortable. They built aqueducts to carry water to more
than 200 cities. Elaborate plumbing systems provided hot and cold water and steam for the public baths.

Engineers made travel within the Empire easier by build ing a network of paved roads that covered over
50.000 miles. They provided for drainage by laying the pavement of stone slabs over crushed stone.
brick, and pottery. Ditches along side the roads carried away run-off water.

Architects found ways to design buildings with large interi ors where many people could gather. The
Romans were thus the first to emphasize the space inside buildings as well as the overall appearance.

Among the tools Roman carpenters used were hammers, cutting tools, and mason's squares (below).
Using such simple instruments, Roman architects constructed a variety of buildings. The temple known
as the Pantheon (right) is considered a triumph of engineering. Its dome forms a nearly perfect
hemisphere. Arches within the concrete walls redistribute the weight of this dome and allow a large
open interior.

The structures shown on these pages indicate how extensively the Romans used the arch, both for
decoration and for practical purposes. The aqueduct in France (top left) has three levels of arches
supporting a roadway (still in use) and a channel for water. Most of the arches in the Colosseum (above)
served as entryways. This stadium seated 50.000 people on concrete tiers around an oval arena where
gladiatorial contests were held While the Romans used concrete for most of their buildings, their roads
like this road in Turkey (top right) - were paved with large blocks of stone.

Rome also imported goods from foreign lands as far away as China.

Hundreds of new cities were built in the Empire, particularly in southern Gaul, Old cities grew larger and
wealthier. The cities en joyed much self-government and served as cen ters of education and culture.

Rome unites many peoples. From Britain to Arabia and from the Danube River to the sands of the
Sahara, some 70 million people. speaking different languages and following dif ferent customs, were
united under Roman rule and Roman law. Citizenship was granted gen erously, and in A.D. 212 virtually
all free people in the Empire became Roman citizens. Peoples from different lands learned to speak
Latin, the Roman language. They used the same system of weights and measures, obeyed the same
laws, and swore allegiance to one emperor. Almost all felt proud and honored to be called citizens of
Rome.

4. Roman Society Changes

Roman society underwent many changes from the early days of the Republic to the period of the Pax
Romana. The wealth of the upper class increased, cities flourished, and education came increasingly
under the influence of Greek ways. Family life changed, and women gained greater freedom.

Roman cities are centers of culture. The prosperity of the Roman Empire rested on the flourishing cities
in Italy and the provinces. Ro man engineers built a network of stone-paved roads linking cities and
making trade and travel easy within the Empire. Provincial cities tended to copy the city of Rome. With
schools, libraries, theaters, and public baths, they too became centers of culture and entertainment.

Class divisions separate the citizens of Rome. There were great contrasts between rich and poor in Rome
and, to a lesser extent, in the provinces. In the Roman Republic, the dis tinction between plebeians and
patricians had been mainly one of birth. Gradually the ple beians had gained legal equality By the time
of the Empire, class divisions between the Ro mans were based mainly on wealth. Prominent among
upper-class Roman were wealthy landowners whose fields were in the nearby countryside. Merchants,
doctors lawyers, and government officials were also members of the upper class, as were some scholars,
writers, and artists. The most distin guished Romans belonged to the old senatorial families. They had
wealth, social position, and political power. Wealthy Romans lived in luxurious town houses or large
country villas with swimming pools, courtyards, and winter and summer din ing rooms. They dressed in
fine silk and wore gold ornaments and jewels. At a traditional Ro man banquet, guests reclined on
couches and were waited on by slaves and entertained by dancers, acrobats, and musicians. Roman no
bles dined far into the night on such unusual dishes as ostrich boiled with sweet sauce, roast parrot,
flamingo boiled with dates, and larks tongues.

The poor people in the cities and the Ro man countryside had little share in politics of culture.
Unemployment was widespread, be cause slaves did much of the work and there was little industry.
Public building projects pro vided some jobs for the poor, but probably half of Rome's one million
people depended on the free food given them by the government. The city poor lived in wooden houses
crowded closely together.

Rome depended heavily on agriculture. Farmers formed the bulk of the Empire's popu lation. They
toiled long hours to provide cheap food for the people in the cities.
Roman society includes slaves. As in other ancient civilizations, slavery was common in Rome. In the
early days of the Republic, most slaves were poor Italian farmers who had lost their freedom because of
inability to repay their debts. Once Rome began to expand, the number of foreign slaves increased
enormously. In the first war with Carthage, the Romans enslaved 75,000 prisoners of war. Caesar's con
quest of Gaul brought thousands of other cap lives into the Roman slave markets. By the time of
Augustus, slaves may have accounted for a

quarter of the population of Italy. Under the Republic, slaves were often badly treated. During the
Empire, the lot of household slaves improved greatly. Educated Greeks often became respected
teachers in Ro man families Other slaves were skilled artisans. Life was still harsh and brutal for most
slaves, who rowed the galleys of the Roman navy, worked on latifundia, or cut stone in the quarries.

Several emperors passed laws protecting slaves from cruel masters. Seneca, a Stoic phí losopher, urged
humane treatment: "Kindly re member that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same [human]
stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies." In
time Roman law provided for the freeing of slaves under certain conditions. Freed slaves became
citizens with most of the rights and privileges of other Roman citizens.

Family life changes. In the early days of the Republic the father, or paterfamilias (pah tur-fah-MIL-ee-us).
had absolute authority over every person in his household, including slaves and distant relatives. By the
second century A.D., however, family discipline was much less harsh. Some parents became
overindulgent, and old-fashioned Romans complained that children were spoiled and poorly disciplined.

The change in family authority brought Roman women more freedom. In the early days of the Republic,
a Roman woman went from the absolute authority of her father's household to the absolute rule of her
husband. By the time of the Empire, however, a father could no longer force his daughter to marry
against her will. A woman could own property and keep her own money or property if divorced. She
could also make business ar rangements and draw up a will without her husband's approval.

Roman women enjoyed greater freedom and respect than did upper-class women in Greece. Roman
women went out visiting or shopping as they pleased. Girls from noble Ro man families had
opportunities for education that were denied the daughters of Greek no bles. Roman girls might be
taught Greek and Latin literature as well as skills in music and dance. Some upper-class Roman women
formed groups that read and discussed poetry.
The mothers, daughters, and wives in prominent senatorial families often acquired great political
influence. These women were self-assured and powerful. Cornelia, the mother of Tiberius and Gaius
Gracchus, influenced Roman politics through her sons. Livia, the dynamic wife of Augustus, often
advised him on decisions. She ensured the succession of her son Tiberius as emperor. From about A.D.
211 to 235, several influential women from the same family held great power in Rome. The empress
Julia Domna was in charge of the gov ernment while her son, the emperor Caracalla, was fighting
abroad. She also was active in Ro man cultural life and supported writers and philosophers. Her niece
Julia Mamaea was the mother of the emperor Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235) and made many of the
decisions of her son's reign.

Schools educate young Romans. Many of the important Roman values and attitudes were learned at
home. A formal system of schooling for Roman boys developed, however, during the Republic. (Girls
were generally taught at home.) A teacher called a litterator taught young boys reading and writing, and
they learned arithmetic from a teacher called a cal culator. Older boys attended grammar school, where
they studied music. geometry, astron omy, literature, and oratory. As in Greece, pub lic speaking and
debating were essential skills in Roman political life, and some students con tinued their studies in the
school of rhetoric.

Rome's conquest of the Hellenistic world

had a great influence on Roman education. Thousands of educated Greeks came to Rome, often as
slaves. Many of them became private tutors for the children of the wealthy. They in troduced young
Romans to Greek art, science, philosophy, and literature.

Roman cities provide popular entertain ment. The Roman people, both rich and poor, loved violent
sports and games. The most pop ular forms of entertainment in both the Repub lic and the Empire were
chariot races, displays of armed combat, and acts with wild animals. The rich staked fortunes on the
outcome of the competition, and the poor bet their last coin. Roman politicians sponsored games and
pa rades to win the voters' approval. Some of Rome's greatest public buildings, such as the Colosseum
and the Circus Maximus, were erected to house these events.

The drivers in chariot races might be trained slaves or daring Roman nobles. They drove teams of swift
horses in thrilling and dangerous races. Roman crowds also loved con tests between trained gladiators.
Usually slaves or condemned criminals, gladiators fought each other with swords or spears. Most fights
were to the death. If not, the crowd might demand ei ther death or freedom for the loser. Even more
brutal were the contests between animals or be tween people and animals. In some events ti gers were
set against elephants, or people were sent into the arena with lions or wild bulls. In one spectacle during
the reign of the emperor Titus. 5,000 wild animals were killed. Much of Rome's trade with Africa was
devoted to secur ing animals for these contests.

EXTENT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

The vast extent of Rome's empire is suggested by these pictures. Right, the 23-foot high wall built by the
emperor Hadrian stretches nearly 75 miles across northern England. Above is a wall painting from the
Nile delta of Egypt, at the southern boundary of the Empire.

This portrait of a Roman mother and child comes from the city of Alexandria. It is made of sapphire-blue
glass painted with gold.

5. The Romans Build on Greek Culture

From the Greek cities in southern Italy and Sicily, the Roman Republic had absorbed some elements of
Greek civilization. After the lands of the eastern Mediterranean came under Ro man control, the Greek
influence on Rome in creased greatly. This culture, which blended Greek and Roman influences, is called
Greco Roman culture.

Greek culture is brought to Rome. Rome's eastern conquests in the second century B.C. brought
thousands of Greek intellectuals, busi nessmen, and slaves to Italy. Roman generals shipped libraries
and works of art from Greek cities to Rome. Wealthy Romans hired (or bought as slaves) Greek teachers,
poets, and philosophers to live in their households. Some Romans even sent their sons to Athens to
study. Increasingly Rome came under the in fluence of Greek culture.

Expansion also brought Rome into contact with the laws and legal traditions of other peo ples,
particularly the Greeks. Roman lawyers selected elements of the different legal codes and incorporated
them into Roman law. Grad ually there evolved a code of law that applied

throughout the Empire.

Roman philosophy, literature, science, art, and architecture had roots in ancient Greece. Roman
intellectuals preserved and spread the Greek stress on excellence and the use of rea son. The Romans
added their own practical skills and abilities - organizational ability, skill in engineering, and a talent for
government and law Greco-Roman culture spread through out the Empire during the Pax Romana, and
people in the Roman cities enjoyed its benefits. Many Roman emperors gave their help and support to
Roman writers and artists.
Poets express Roman ideals. One of the greatest works of Greco-Roman literature was written at the
request of the emperor Augustus. The poet Virgil (70-19 B.C.) glorified the Ro man talent for governing
in the Aeneid (ih-NEE id), an epic poem like those of Homer (page 66). The Aeneid tells the legend of
Aeneas, whose descendants supposedly founded Rome. Virgil's poetry expressed his optimism that
Rome's destiny was to bring the blessings of peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Greeks
might be better sculptors, orators, or thinkers, said Virgil, but only the Romans knew how to govern an
empire.

Another great poet of Augustus' time was Horace (65-8 B.C.). The son of a freed slave, he became a
friend of Virgil and later of Augustus. Like them, he had grown up under the Repub lic and remembered
the agony of its civil wars. Horace felt human greed had caused these con flicts, and he criticized the
luxurious lives of many wealthy Romans. He asked, "Why do we strive so hard in our brief lives for great
posses signs?" It would be better, he said, if the Romans would follow the Greek ideal of mod eration.

While Horace and Virgil preferred the country and wrote poems praising the Roman countryside, the
poet Ovid (AW-vid) was a city dweller. Ovid lived from 43 B.C. to A.D. 18. He spoke for the upper-class
people of the Empire, who had given up the simple life of the Repub lic. Ovid wrote of wealth, fashion,
romance, and the enjoyment of life. He retold Greek and Roman myths in the Metamorphoses.

Juvenal criticizes Roman society. The last great Roman writer was Juvenal (A.D. 60-140). A keen observer
of the Roman world, he found much to criticize with his biting wit. Juvenal's description of a crowded
city still sounds fresh today:

Though we hurry, we merely crawl;

We're blocked by a surging mass ahead, a pushing wall

Of people behind. A man jabs me, elbowing through, one socks

A chair pole against me, one cracks my skull with a beam, one knocks

A wine cask against my ear. My legs are caked with splashing

feet comes smashing On mine, and a soldier stamps his hobnails through to my sole.

The Romans add realism to art. Just as Roman poets were keen observers of everyday life, Roman
sculptors sought to show the unique qualities of an individual. Greek artists had tried to portray perfect
human beauty, but the Romans carved every detail realistically. They showed unruly hair, a prominent
nose, and age lines and wrinkles. Another popular form of art in Rome was the wall painting Wealthy
Romans had portraits, ocean views, or scenes from mythology painted on the walls of their homes.
Roman artisans were skilled in working with bronze and terra cotta and in carving jewels.

Discovering the Past in Pompeii

On a hot August day in A.D. 79, the volcano Vesuvius in southwestern Italy erupted almost without
warning. Deadly fumes and tons of poisonous ash filled the air, quickly burying the prosperous town of
Pompeii (pom-PAY). Time stopped for Pompeii; for about 1,800 years it lay under twelve feet of ash and
mud that protected it from age and weather. When archeologists began to explore Pompeii in the late
1800's, they found a perfectly preserved picture of first century Roman life.

Though many Pompeiians escaped, the searchers found tragic evidence of those who had not. Loaves of
bread sat on the shelves of a bakery, cups lay on tables in an inn. Excavations revealed private homes,
with walls colorfully painted with landscapes, scenes from myths, and delightful designs animals, fruits,
and flowers. The painting at right shows Primavera, who symbolized spring. Signs on Pompeii's walls
advertised shops and praised political candidates. Modern observers could only marvel at the private life
of Pompeii - tragically stopped in a few hours of terror.

Roman architecture is practical. Roman architects were skilled engineers. They discov ered the principle
of the arch and used arches in their buildings, bridges, monuments, and aqueducts. The Romans also
combined series of arches to make vaulted roofs.

Roman architects often followed Greek (models for public buildings, but they developed techniques to
save on costs. It was expensive to import marble from Greece or ship Italian marble to other parts of the
Empire, so Roman architects built with brick, concrete, and com mon stone, and then covered these
materials with slabs of fine marble.
Roman theaters, amphitheaters, public baths, and temples were built to last. Many Ro man rulers are
remembered for the great build ing projects they sponsored. The remains of Roman buildings, bridges,
and aqueducts can be seen today in the lands once ruled by the Empire. Some are still in use.

The Romans take a practical approach to science. As in architecture, the Romans' achievements in
science were practical. They used science to build roads, bridges, tunnels, and reservoirs. Roman
engineers planned roads. that were used for centuries. They developed efficient sewer systems and built
aqueducts to carry water to the cities of the Empire.

Ptolemy and Galen dominate Roman sci ence. The two most prominent scientists of the Greco-Roman
age were Ptolemy_ (TAHL-uh mee) and Galen (GAY-lun), who both lived dur ing the second century A.D.
Ptolemy was a mathematician, geographer, and astronomer who worked in Alexandria (page 90) about
A.D. 300. His Almagest a Greek-Arabic word meaning "the greatest") summed up the an cient world's
knowledge of astronomy and geography. Ptolemy proposed a model of the universe in which the earth
stood in the center of the universe while the sun, moon, and plan ets moved about it in circles or
combinations of circles. Although Ptolemy based his system on a mistaken belief, it seemed to account
for most of the changes that could be observed in the skies. The system seemed so logical that it was
accepted until the sixteenth century.

Galen was a Greek, but his theories domi nated Roman medicine, To study the workings of the body,
Galen dissected animals. Although Galen's work contained many errors, it was the basis for Western
medical knowledge until modern times.

Roman thinkers follow the Stoic tradi tion. The leading philosophy of the Roman world during the Pax
Romana was Stoicism (page 91). Roman Stoics carried on the tradi tions begun by Greek philosophers.

Most famous of the Roman Stoics was the emperor Marcus Aurelius (page 107). In his book of
Meditations, he expressed the Stoic be lief that people should live simple lives, control their emotions,
and be self-sufficient.

The Romans have a talent for law. A sys tem of law and justice was perhaps Rome's greatest
contribution to Western civilization. The law codes of present-day Italy, Spain, France, and the nations of
Latin America - particularly those provisions dealing with the family, private property, and business
contracts are based on Roman law. The Romans be lieved law should reflect principles of reason and
justice and should protect the citizen's per son and property. The Roman writer and ora tor Cicero (SIS-
er-oh) said that the law should not be "b by influence or broken by power or spoiled by money." Cicero
considered obe dience to law to be one of the requirements of civilized life: "We are servants of the law
in order that we may be free," he said.

One branch of Roman law, the Law of Na tions, was applied to citizens in all parts of the Empire. Under
this law a citizen was not a Briton, a Spaniard, an Italian, or a Greek, but a Roman. The idea that law
could be based on just and rational principles and could apply to all peoples regardless of nationality
was a ma jor contribution to civilization.