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Aquaponics - the circular food production system

Course reader
Week 4 – Hydroponics Part 1

ZHAW Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Wädenswil, Switzerland

Based on and adapted from Junge, R., Antenen, N., Villarroel, M., Griessler Bulc,
T., Ovca, A., & Milliken, S. (Eds.) (2020). Aquaponics Textbook for Higher
Education. Zenodo. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3948179
Content
4.1 HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS .............................................................................................................................. 1
4.1.1 THE PRINCIPLES OF HYDROPONICS ...................................................................................................................... 1
4.1.1.1 Advantages of hydroponics ................................................................................................................ 1
4.1.1.2 Disadvantages of hydroponics............................................................................................................ 2

4.1.2 SUBSTRATES................................................................................................................................................... 2
4.1.2.1 Light expanded clay aggregate (LECA) ............................................................................................... 3
4.1.2.2 Volcanic gravel (tuff) .......................................................................................................................... 3
4.1.2.3 Limestone gravel ................................................................................................................................ 3
4.1.2.4 Vermiculite ......................................................................................................................................... 3
4.1.2.5 Perlite ................................................................................................................................................. 3
4.1.2.6 Pumice ................................................................................................................................................ 3
4.1.2.7 Rock wool ........................................................................................................................................... 4
4.1.2.8 Coconut fibre (or coir) ......................................................................................................................... 4

4.1.3 HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................................... 4

4.1.3.1 Media bed hydroponics ...................................................................................................................... 5
4.1.3.2 Ebb and flow system ........................................................................................................................... 6
4.1.3.3 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) ............................................................................................................ 6
4.1.3.4 Deep water culture (DWC) .................................................................................................................. 8
4.1.3.5 Deep flow technique (DFT) ................................................................................................................. 9
4.1.3.6 Drip irrigation system ......................................................................................................................... 9
4.1.3.7 Aeroponics and Fogponics .................................................................................................................. 9

4.1.4 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 10

4.2 PLANT ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND GROWTH REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 11

4.2.1 PLANT ANATOMY .......................................................................................................................................... 11

4.2.2 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................... 12

4.2.2.1 Photosynthesis .................................................................................................................................. 12
4.2.2.2 Respiration........................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2.2.3 Osmosis and plasmolysis .................................................................................................................. 12
4.2.2.4 Transpiration .................................................................................................................................... 13
4.2.2.5 Phototropism .................................................................................................................................... 13
4.2.2.6 Photoperiodism ................................................................................................................................ 13

4.2.3 GROWTH REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 14

4.2.3.1 Light .................................................................................................................................................. 14
4.2.3.2 Oxygen demand, temperature, and pH ............................................................................................ 15
4.2.3.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.2.3.4 Air temperature ................................................................................................................................ 16
4.2.3.5 Relative humidity .............................................................................................................................. 16

4.2.4 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 17
4.3 NUTRIENT SUPPLY .................................................................................................................................... 18
4.3.1 PLANT REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................................................... 18
4.3.1.1 Essential nutrient elements .............................................................................................................. 18
4.3.1.2 Nutrient availability and pH ............................................................................................................. 21
4.3.1.3 Nutritional disorders in plants .......................................................................................................... 22

4.3.2 NUTRIENT SUPPLY IN AQUAPONICS ................................................................................................................... 25

4.3.3 MONITORING OF THE NUTRIENT SOLUTION ........................................................................................................ 28

4.3.3.1 Why monitor? ................................................................................................................................... 28
4.3.3.2 Different monitoring approaches ..................................................................................................... 28
4.3.3.3 Classification of monitoring parameters .......................................................................................... 29
4.3.3.4 Frequency of monitoring .................................................................................................................. 30

4.3.4 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................. 31
4.1 Hydroponic Systems

4.1.1 The principles of hydroponics

Hydroponics is a soil-independent method for growing crops, using the nutrients added to the
irrigation water (so called fertigation) (Table 1). Soilless agriculture is also mostly less labour-intensive,
supports monocultures better than in-ground agriculture, and can be used on non-arable or degraded
land (Somerville et al. 2014c). However, it takes more knowledge to successfully operate soilless
cultures.

Table 1: Classification of soil-independent plant cultivation systems (Adapted after Maucieri et al, 2019)

Aspect Categories Examples

NFT (Nutrient Film Technique)

No substrate DFT (Deep Flow Technique)

Aeroponic

Soilless system Organic substrates (coconut coir, bark, peat,

wood fibre, etc.)

With substrate Inorganic substrates (rock wool, pumice, sand,

perlite, vermiculite, expanded clay)

Synthetic substrates (polyurethane, polystyrene)

The plants are fed with 'fresh' solution without

Open or run-to-waste systems recovering the solution drained from the
cultivation modules
Open/closed systems
The drained nutrient solution is recycled and
Closed or recirculation systems topped up with lacking nutrients to the right EC
level

NFT (Nutrient Film Technique)

Continuous
DFT (Deep Flow Technique)
Water supply
Intermittent Drip irrigation, ebb and flow

Mineral fertilizer Conventional hydroponics

Nutrient source
Organic fertilizer Organic hydroponics or bioponic

4.1.1.1 Advantages of hydroponics

Hydroponics allows the farmer to monitor, maintain and adjust the growing conditions of the plants,
ensuring optimal real-time nutrient balances, water delivery and pH. In addition, there is no
competition from weeds, and the plants benefit from higher control of pests and diseases. It is said
that a plant grown using hydroponics uses 90% less water than would be used to grow the same plant
in soil (Somerville et al. 2014c). In hydroponics the water used is the minimum needed for plant
growth, while in-ground agriculture loses water through evaporation from the surface, percolation
into the subsoil, runoff, and weed growth. Hydroponics therefore offers great potential for crop
production in areas where water is scarce or expensive. Since the nutrients necessary for plant growth

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are in a solution that is delivered directly to the roots, the solution can be tailored to the plant’s needs
at a particular growth stage. With in-ground agriculture, on the other hand, farmers cannot fully
control the delivery of nutrients to the plants because of the mineralisation processes occurring in the
soil, and some fertilizer may be lost to runoff, which not only decreases efficiency, but also causes
environmental concerns. Because hydroponically grown plants dip their roots directly into the nutrient
solution, they obtain what they need much more easily than plants grown in soil, so they usually have
smaller root systems and can divert more energy into leaf, stem and fruit growth. As a result,
hydroponic culture can achieve between 5 and 25% higher yields than soil-based culture (Somerville
et al. 2014c).

4.1.1.2 Disadvantages of hydroponics

However, there are also some limitations to hydroponic systems. The main problem is the high initial
setup cost. They are also vulnerable to power outages, as the electrical-driven devices in the systems
cannot supply the nutrient solution without power. In addition, when phytopathogens
(microorganisms such as Verticillium, Pythium, and Fusarium) contaminate solutions or crops,
waterborne diseases can rapidly spread throughout the entire system. Hydroponic system operators
need specialized skills and knowledge to produce high yields of crops; they must have nutrient recipes
available, learn how to calculate and prepare nutrient solution and nutrient supplementation, lighting,
and prevent the formation of biofilms in the water tubing system. Finally, it is important, that nutrient-
rich hydroponic solutions and plastic materials are reused and recycled, in order not to pollute the
environment (Lee & Lee 2015).

4.1.2 Substrates
Depending on the hydroponic system, a different substrate is more or less suitable. The substrate may
be organic, inorganic, or synthetic (Table 1). It needs to have an adequate surface area while remaining
permeable for water and air, thus allowing bacterial growth, water flow, and root respiration. It must
be non-toxic, have a neutral pH, and be resistant to mould growth. It must also not be so lightweight
that it floats. Water retention, aeration and pH balance are all aspects that vary depending on the
substrate. Water is retained on the surface of the particles and within the pore space, so water
retention is determined by particle size, shape, and porosity (Table 2). The smaller the particles, the
greater the surface area and pore space, and hence the greater the water retention. Irregularly shaped
particles have a lager surface area and hence higher water retention than smooth, round particles.
Porous materials can store water; therefore, water retention is high. While the substrate must be
capable of good water retention, it must also be capable of good drainage. Therefore, too fine
materials must be avoided in order to prevent excessive water retention and lack of oxygen (Resh
2013, Maucieri et al. 2019).

Substrates can be classified as either granular or fibrous. Granular substrates include light expanded
clay aggregate, gravel, vermiculite, perlite, and pumice. Fibrous substrates include rock wool and
coconut fibre. Water is mainly held in the micropore space of a substrate, while rapid drainage and air
entry is facilitated by the macropores (Drzal et al. 1999). An adequate combination of large and small
pores is therefore essential (Raviv et al. 2002). Granular substrates have high macroporosity (air
availability) but comparatively low microporosity (water availability), while fibrous substrates have
high microporosity but comparatively low macroporosity (Maucieri et al., 2019).

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4.1.2.1 Light expanded clay aggregate (LECA)
Light expanded clay aggregate (LECA) is very lightweight compared with other substrates, which makes
it ideal for rooftop aquaponics. It comes in a variety of sizes; the larger sizes with diameters of 8-20 mm
are recommended for aquaponics (Somerville et al. 2014). Larger pore spaces (macroporosity) allow
better percolation of solution through the substrate and better air supply, even when biofilms cover
the surfaces. However, LECA has small micropores, and thus does not have good water holding
capacity.

4.1.2.2 Volcanic gravel (tuff)

Volcanic gravel has a very high surface area to volume ratio which provides ample space for bacteria
to colonize, and it is almost chemically inert, except for small releases of microelements such as iron
and magnesium and the absorption of phosphate and potassium ions within the first few months. The
recommended size of volcanic gravel is 8-20 mm in diameter. Smaller gravel is likely to clog with solid
waste, while larger gravel does not offer the required surface area or plant support (Somerville et al.
2014b).

4.1.2.3 Limestone gravel

Limestone gravel is not recommended as a substrate, although it is sometimes used. Limestone has a
lower surface-to-volume ratio than volcanic gravel, it is comparatively heavy, and it is not inert.
Limestone is composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which dissolves in water. This will
increase the pH, and it should therefore only be used where water sources are very low in alkalinity or
acidic. Nevertheless, a small addition of limestone can help to counterbalance the acidifying effect of
nitrifying bacteria, which can offset the need for regular water buffering (Somerville et al. 2014b).

4.1.2.4 Vermiculite
Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral which expands when heated above 1000 ⁰C. The water turns to
steam, forming small, porous, sponge-like kernels. Vermiculite is very light in weight and can absorb
large quantities of water. Chemically, it is a hydrated magnesium-aluminium-iron silicate. It is neutral
in reaction with good buffering properties, and has a relatively high cation exchange capacity and thus
can hold nutrients in reserve and later release them. It also contains some magnesium and potassium,
which is available to plants (Resh 2013).

4.1.2.5 Perlite
Perlite is a siliceous material of volcanic origin, mined from lava flows. It is heated to 760 ⁰C, which
turns the small amount of water into steam, thereby expanding the particles to small, sponge-like
kernels. Perlite is very lightweight and will hold three to four times its weight of water. It is essentially
neutral, with a pH of 6.0–8.0, but with no buffering capacity; unlike vermiculite, it has no cation
exchange capacity and contains no minor nutrients. It should not to be used on its own, but rather
mixed with another substrate in order to improve drainage and aeration (Resh 2013).

4.1.2.6 Pumice
Pumice, like perlite, is a siliceous material of volcanic origin and has essentially the same properties.
However, it is the crude ore after crushing and screening, without any heating process, and therefore
it is heavier and does not absorb water as readily, since it has not been hydrated (Resh 2013).

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4.1.2.7 Rock wool
Rock wool is made from basalt rock that is molten in furnaces at a temperature of 1500 ⁰C. The liquid
basalt is then spun into threads and compressed into wool packets which are cut into slabs, blocks, or
plugs. Most of the rapid expansion of the greenhouse industry over the past two decades has been
with rock wool culture. However, in recent years concerns have been raised about its disposal, as it
does not break down in landfills (Resh 2013).

4.1.2.8 Coconut fibre (or coir)

Coconut fibre (or coir) is an organic substrate derived from frayed and ground coconut husks. It is close
to pH neutral and retains water while allowing for a good amount of oxygen for the roots (Resh 2013).

Table 2: Characteristics of different growing media (after Somerville et al. 2014b)

Substrate Surface area pH Cost Weight Lifespan Water retention Plant support
(m2/m3)
Limestone 150-200 Basic Low Heavy Long Poor Excellent
gravel
Volcanic 300-400 Neutral Medium Medium Long Medium-Poor Excellent
gravel
Pumice 200-300 Neutral Medium- Light Long Medium Medium-Poor
High
LECA 250-300 Neutral High Light Long Medium-Poor Medium
Coco Coir 200-400 Neutral Low- Light Short High Medium
(variable) Medium

4.1.3 Hydroponic systems

There are three main types of hydroponic systems: (1) media bed hydroponics where the plants grow
in a substrate; (2) nutrient film technique (NFT) systems were the plants grow with their roots in wide
pipes supplied with a trickle of water. As a support for the plants, they are placed in plant pots with
some substrate and then in the NFT channel; (3) deep water culture (DWC) or floating raft systems
were the plants are suspended above a tank of water using a floating raft. Each type has its advantages
and disadvantages which are discussed in more detail below. In general, there are two methods of
managing water in hydroponic systems (Maucieri et al. 2019):

Non-recirculating system:
In industrial cultivation, there are often non-recovery systems in use to achieve optimal yield. The
plants are always supplied with fresh and equal adjusted nutrient solution. Nothing is circulated, e.g.
to avoid the spread of pathogens. However, this process consumes much more water and more
nutrients get lost.

Recirculating system:
The nutrient solution is collected and returned to the plants via a pump. By this, resource consumption
is much lower. However, a recirculating system is harder to control and if something happens such as
pest or pathogen infestation, is harder to deal with it.

As for the role of the design of the hydroponic component on the overall performance and water
consumption of aquaponic systems, a literature review by Maucieri et al. 2018 found that NFT is less
efficient than media bed or DWC hydroponics, although the results were not unequivocal. The
hydroponic component directly influences water quality, which is essential for fish rearing, and is also
one of the main sources of water loss by plant evapotranspiration. The design of the hydroponic

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component therefore influences the sustainability of the entire process, either directly in terms of
water consumption and/or indirectly in terms of system management costs. The choice of the
hydroponic component for an aquaponic system will also influence the design of the entire system.
For example, in media bed systems the substrate usually provides enough surface area for bacteria
growth and filtration, while in NFT channels the surface area is insufficient, and additional biofilters
will need to be installed (Maucieri et al. 2018).

4.1.3.1 Media bed hydroponics

In media bed hydroponics, a soilless growing medium or
substrate is used to help the roots support the weight of
the plant. The media bed also serves as a biological and
physical filter. Of the hydroponic sub-systems, media
beds have the most efficient biological filtration because
of the large surface area where biofilm, containing
nitrifying and other bacteria, can colonize. The substrate
also captures the solid and suspended fish waste and
other floating organic particles, although the
effectiveness of this physical filter will depend on the
particle and grain size of the substrate, and the water
flow rate. Over time, the organic particles are slowly
broken down by biological and physical processes into
simple molecules and ions that are available for the
plants to absorb (Somerville et al. 2014b). Thus, all substrates have to be periodically cleaned (Resh
2013).

Figure 1: Tomato transplants growing in a media bed container system with drip irrigation and LECA substrate
(source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hydroponics#/media/File:Hydroponic_Farming.jpg)

There are different techniques for delivering nutrient-enriched water to media beds. It can be simply
trickled from drippers attached to pipes uniformly distributed on the medium (Figure 1). Alternatively,
a method called flood-and-drain (or ebb-and-flow) causes the media beds to be periodically flooded
with water which then drains back to a reservoir. The alternation between flooding and draining
ensures that the plants have fresh nutrients and adequate air (and thus oxygen) flow in the root zone.
It also ensures that enough moisture is in the media bed at all times so the bacteria can thrive in their
optimal conditions. The nature of a flood-and-drain media bed creates three separate zones which are
differentiated by their water and oxygen content (Somerville et al. 2014b):

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 • The top 2-5 cm is the dry zone, which functions as a light barrier, minimizing evaporation and
preventing the light from directly hitting the water which can lead to algal growth. It also
prevents the growth of fungus and harmful bacteria at the base of the plant stem and the
changes of mosquito larvae development are lower.
• The dry/wet zone has both moisture and high gas exchange. This is the 10-20 cm zone where
the media bed intermittently floods and drains. If not using flood-and-drain techniques, this
zone will be the path along which the water flows through the medium. Most of the biological
activity occurs in this zone.
• The wet zone is the bottom 3-5 cm of the bed which remains permanently wet. The small
particulate solid wastes accumulate in this zone, and therefore the organisms that are most
active in mineralization are also located here, including heterotrophic bacteria and other
micro-organisms which break down the waste into smaller fractions and molecules that can
be absorbed by the plants through the process of mineralization (Somerville et al. 2014b).
4.1.3.2 Ebb and flow system
Ebb and flow hydroponic systems can be set up in a few
different ways but all work under the same concept. The
grow tray of an ebb and flow hydroponic system is slowly
flooded with nutrient solution. The water pump is typically
set up on a timer to flood the grow bed at specific intervals.
When the hydroponic solution reaches the desired level, the
nutrient solution flows via overflow back into the reservoir.
As the nutrient solution drains from the grow tray the roots
are then exposed to the needed oxygen. The grow medium
stays moist from the flooding until the grow bed is flooded
and the process repeats. This constant flooding and draining
provides the plats with an abundant amount of oxygen and
nutrients and promotes fast, healthy plant growth.

4.1.3.3 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)

In NFT systems a thin nutrient solution film (two to three
millimetres depth) continually flows along the base of
small channels in which the root systems sit. With NFT, the
objective is that part of the developing root mat is in the
nutrient flow, but the other roots are suspended above
this in the moist air, accessing oxygen without being
submerged (Somerville et al. 2014b).

The channels are often in the form of pipes (Figure 2).

Pipes with a rectangular section (Figure 3) are best, with a
width larger than the height, as this means that a larger
volume of water hits the roots, thereby increasing
nutrient uptake and plant growth. NFT systems are mostly
used for producing rapid-turnover crops such as lettuce, herbs, strawberries, green vegetables, fodder,
and microgreens. Larger fruiting vegetables and polycultures (growing different types of vegetables)
require larger pipes than those needed for fast-growing leafy greens and small vegetables with small

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root masses. The length of the pipe can vary, but it is worth bearing in mind that nutrient deficiencies
can occur in plants towards the end of very long pipes because the first plants have already stripped
the nutrients (Figure 5). White pipes should be used as the colour reflects the sun’s rays, thereby
keeping the inside of the pipes cool. The channels must be positioned on a slope (Figure 4) so that the
nutrient solution flows at a good flow rate, which for most systems is around one litre/minute
(Somerville et al. 2014a).

Figure 2: NFT round pipe system

(source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydroponics_(33185459271).jpg)

Figure 3: NFT rectangular pipe system

Figure 4: Sloping NFT channels. The NFT channel is 12.5 m long and was fed with water from the adjacent fish
tank. No nutrients were supplemented. One can observe the increasing nutrient limitation along the channel.

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4.1.3.4 Deep water culture (DWC)
DWC or floating raft system is a type of hydroponic system
in which the plants are suspended above a tank using a
floating raft, and the roots are submerged in nutrient
solution and aerated via an air pump. However, unlike in
NFT systems, where the nutrients in the small film of
water flowing at root level quickly become depleted, the
large volume of water contained in the DWC canals allows
for considerable amounts of nutrients to be used by the
plants. The length of the canals is therefore less of an issue
and can range from one to ten metres. The recommended
depth is 30 cm or more to allow for adequate plant root
space, although small leafy greens only require a depth of
10 cm or even less. The flow rate of the water entering
each canal is relatively low, and generally each canal has a
retention time (the amount of time it takes to replace all the water in a container) of 1-4 hours.
(Somerville et al. 2014b). On the other hand, additional aeration might be required, because the flow
rates are not high enough to provide sufficient oxygen.
Some plants thrive in water and are commonly grown using deep water culture (Figure 5). DWC is the
most common method for large commercial operations growing one specific crop (typically lettuce,
salad leaves or basil), and is more suitable for mechanization.

Figure 5: Basil and other plants growing in the DWC system in the CDC South Aquaponics greenhouse in Brooks,
Alberta (source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CDC_South_Aquaponics_Raft_Tank_1_2010-07.jpg)

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4.1.3.5 Deep flow technique (DFT)
The Deep Flow Technique is a variant of the NFT technique,
which is also called Nutrient Flow Technique. Instead of the
thin nutrient film, the plants are surrounded by an
approximately 4 cm high nutrient solution. The basic
procedure is the same. The system is working recirculating.

The deep flow technique makes this type of hydroponic

system safer, as the roots are still supplied in the event of
a pump failure. However, the method is not applied very
often, since especially in longer / larger systems, the
supply of oxygen to the plants varies resulting in uneven
plant growth.

4.1.3.6 Drip irrigation system

In drip irrigation systems the nutrient solution is dripped
via a drip line onto the substrate around the plants. The
sprinkling frequency is adapted to the needs of the plants
and controlled by a timer. The nutrient solution flows
around the roots, so they are directly supplied with water
and nutrients. The excess fluid drains, drawing oxygen
into the root area, which is important for plant growth.

The draining system avoids waterlogging, which is good

for root development. Due to the adaptable irrigation
frequency, a good fluid intake is achieved, which leads to
high yields.

4.1.3.7 Aeroponics and Fogponics

In aeroponics, the plants are grown and nourished by suspending their root structures in air and
regularly spraying them with a nutrient solution. There are two main types of aeroponics: (i) high
pressure and (ii) low pressure, the main difference being the droplet size of the mist used in each case.
Low-pressure aeroponics uses low-pressure, high-flow pumps, whereas high-pressure aeroponics uses
high-pressure (around 120 PSI), low-flow pumps to atomize water and create water droplets of 50

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microns or less. In the case of extremely fine mist that resembles fog, the term 'fogponics' is used. The
difference between fogponics and other forms of aeroponics is that while aeroponics typically delivers
nutrient rich water to the roots using a spray (relatively large particles in air), fogponics uses one of a
number of mechanisms (for example ultrasonic, compressed air, or heating elements) to form a
suspension of much smaller particles of water (5–30 microns), or even as a vapour. Plants best absorb
particles from the 1–50 microns range (NASA 1991). It is assumed that the absorption rate, as well as
the energy required to grow are inversely proportional to particle size. Plants grown using an aeroponic
system tend to grow faster than those grown in other types of hydroponic system because of their
ample exposure to increased oxygen (Li et al. 2018).

4.1.4 References
Drzal, M.S., Keith Cassel, D. & Fonteno, W.C. 1999. Pore fraction analysis: A new tool for substrate
testing. Acta Horticulturae 481, 43-54.
Lee, S. & Lee, J. 2015. Beneficial bacteria and fungi in hydroponic systems: Types and characteristics of
food production methods. Scientia Horticulturae 195, 206-215.
Li, Q., Li, X., Tang, B. & Gu, M. 2018. Growth responses and root characteristics of lettuce grown in
aeroponics, hydroponics, and substrate culture. Horticulturae 4 (4), 35.
Maucieri, C., Nicoletto, C., Junge, R., Schmautz, Z., Sambo, P. & Borin, M. 2018. Hydroponic systems
and water management in aquaponics: A review. Italian Journal of Agronomy 13: 1012.
Maucieri, C., Nicoletto, C., van Os, E., Anseeuw, D., Van Havermaet., and Junge, R. (2019) Hydroponic
Technologies. In: Aquaponics Food Production Systems: Combined Aquaculture and Hydroponic
Production Technologies for the Future. Goddek, S., Joyce, A., Kotzen, B., Burnell G.M. (Eds.). pp. 77-
110. Springer Nature Switzerland AG. ISBN 978-3-030-15942-9.
NASA 1991. Technical Reports Server (NTRS). ntrs.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-19.
Raviv, M., Wallach, R., Silber, A. & Bar-Tal, A. 2002. Substrates and their analysis. In Passam, H. & Savvas,
D. (eds.) Hydroponic Production of Vegetables and Ornamentals. Embryo Publications, Athens, pp. 25-
105.
Resh, H.M. 2013. Hydroponic Food Production: A Definitive Guidebook for the Advanced Home
Gardener and the Commercial Hydroponic Grower (7th edition). Newconcept Press, Mahwah, SA.
Somerville et al. 2014b. Design of aquaponics units. In Somerville, C., Cohen, M., Pantanella, E.,
Stankus, A. & Lovatelli, A. Small-Scale Aquaponic Food Production – Integrated Fish and Plant Farming.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 589. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, pp. 35-74.
Somerville et al. 2015a. Additional topics on aquaponics. In Somerville, C., Cohen, M., Pantanella, E.,
Stankus, A. & Lovatelli, A. Small-Scale Aquaponic Food Production – Integrated Fish and Plant Farming.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 589. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, pp. 141-155.
Somerville et al. 2014c. Plants in aquaponics. In Somerville, C., Cohen, M., Pantanella, E., Stankus, A. &
Lovatelli, A. Small-Scale Aquaponic Food Production – Integrated Fish and Plant Farming. FAO Fisheries
and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 589. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, pp. 83-102.

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4.2 Plant Anatomy, Physiology and Growth Requirements

4.2.1 Plant anatomy

Plant anatomy describes the structure and organization of the cells, tissues, and organs of plants in
relation to their development and function. Flowering plants are composed of three vegetative
organs: (i) roots, which function mainly to provide anchorage, water, and nutrients, and to store sugars
and starch; (ii) stems, which provide support; and (iii) leaves, which produce organic substances via
photosynthesis. The roots grow down in response to gravity. In general, a seedling produces a primary
root that grows straight down and gives rise to secondary lateral roots. These may produce tertiary
roots, which in turn may branch, with the process continuing almost indefinitely. Growth occurs at the
root tip or apex, which is protected by a root cap. Roots grow and branch continually, in their search
for minerals and water. The efficiency of the root as an absorbing organ depends on its absorptive
surface area relative to its volume, which is created by the root hairs and the complex system of
branches.

Figure 6 illustrates the basic anatomy of a plant. The hypocotyl is the portion of the stem which at its
base links with the root. At the other end of the stem is the terminal bud, or apical bud, which is the
growing point. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes. The nodes hold one or more
leaves, which are attached to the stem by petioles, as well as buds which can grow into branches with
leaves or flowers. The internodes distance one node from another. The stem and its branches allow
leaves to be arranged to maximize exposure to sunlight, and flowers to be arranged to best attract
pollinators. Branching arises from the activity of apical and axillary buds. Apical dominance occurs
when the shoot apex inhibits the growth of lateral buds so that the plant may grow vertically. The
shoots, which bear the leaves, flowers, and fruit, grow towards a light source. The leaves usually
contain pigments and are the sites of photosynthesis. The leaves also contain stomata, pores through
which water exits and through which gas exchange occurs (carbon dioxide in and oxygen out).

Figure 6: The anatomy of a plant

1. The Shoot System. 2. The Root System. 3. Hypocotyl. 4. Terminal Bud. 5. Leaf Blade. 6. The Internode.
7. Axillary Bud. 8. Node. 9. Stem. 10. Petiole. 11. Tap Root. 12. Root Hairs. 13. Root Tip. 14. Root Cap
(source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_anatomy#/media/File:Plant_Anatomy.svg)

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4.2.2 Plant physiology
Plant physiology is a vast subject, covering fundamental processes such as photosynthesis, respiration,
plant nutrition, plant hormone functions, tropisms, photoperiodism, photomorphogenesis, circadian
rhythms, environmental stress physiology, seed germination, dormancy, stomata function, and
transpiration. Here we will focus on the most important physiological processes and how they are
affected by growing conditions.

4.2.2.1 Photosynthesis
All green plants generate their own food using photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which
plants are able to use light to produce energy and carbohydrates through the fixation of CO2:

6 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6 𝑂2

Chloroplasts are cell organelles that contain chlorophyll, a pigment that uses energy from sunlight to
create high-energy sugar molecules such as glucose. Once created, the sugar molecules are
transported throughout the plant where they are used for all the physiological processes such as
growth, reproduction, and metabolism. Photosynthesis requires light, carbon dioxide, and water.

4.2.2.2 Respiration
The process of respiration in plants involves using the sugars produced during photosynthesis plus
oxygen to produce energy for plant growth:

𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6 𝑂2 → 6 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

While photosynthesis takes place in the green parts only, respiration occurs in all parts of the plant.
Plants obtain oxygen from the air through the stomata, and respiration takes place in the mitochondria
of the cell in the presence of oxygen. Plant respiration occurs 24 hours per day, but night respiration
is more evident since the photosynthesis process ceases. During the night, it is very important that the
temperature is cooler than during the day because this reduces the rate of respiration, and thus allows
plants to accumulate glucose and synthesise other substances from it that are needed for their growth.
High night temperatures cause high respiration rates, which can result in flower damage and poor
plant growth.

4.2.2.3 Osmosis and plasmolysis

Osmosis is the process by which water enters the plant’s roots and moves to its leaves (Figure 7). In
most soils, small quantities of salts are dissolved in large quantities of water. Conversely, the plant cells
contain lesser amounts of water in which salts, sugars and other substances are concentrated. During
osmosis, water molecules 'attempt' to equalize their concentration on both sides of cell membranes.
Thus, when water moves from the soil, where it is most abundant, it 'seeks' to dilute the solution in
the cells. Water entering a cell is stored in a large, central vacuole. When a cell becomes turgid (fully
inflated) the rate of water uptake is slowed. Cell turgor gives firmness to water-filled tissues. The
difference between crisp and wilted lettuce leaves illustrates the nature of turgid and non-turgid
(flaccid) cells. Most plant species wilt in soils where significant quantities of salts have accumulated,
even when adequate water is present. Such saline soils have a lower water content than the root cells,
so the roots lose water as the direction of osmotic flow is reversed. This process is called plasmolysis.

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A cell starts to shrink without adequate internal water. After prolonged water loss, the cell begins to
collapse without any internal water for support. Complete cellular collapse is rarely reversible. When
the cells start to collapse from water loss, the plant is usually doomed because its cells die.

Figure 7: Turgor pressure on plant cells

(source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turgor_pressure_on_plant_cells_diagram.svg)

4.2.2.4 Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant in the form of water vapour. This water is replaced by
additional absorption of water through the roots, leading to a continuous column of water inside the
plant. The process of transpiration provides the plant with evaporative cooling, nutrients, carbon
dioxide entry, and water. When a plant is transpiring, its stomata are open, allowing gas exchange
between the atmosphere and the leaf: water vapour can leave the leaf, and carbon dioxide (CO2) can
enter. Temperature greatly influences transpiration rate. As air temperature increases, the water
holding capacity of that air increases sharply. Warmer air will therefore increase the driving force for
transpiration, while cooler air will decrease it (Sterling 2004).

4.2.2.5 Phototropism
Phototropism is a directional response of plants to grow towards (positive), or in some cases away
from (negative), a source of light (Liscum et al. 2014). Shoots, or above-ground parts of plants,
generally display positive phototropism. This response helps the green parts of the plant to get closer
to a source of light energy, which is then used for photosynthesis. Roots, on the other hand, will tend
to grow away from light. The hormone controlling phototropism is auxin. Its principal function is to
stimulate increase in cell length, especially near stem and root tips. In stems illuminated from above,
cells undergo equal rates of elongation, resulting in vertical growth. But when lit from one side, stems
change direction because auxin accumulates in the shaded side, causing the cells there to grow faster
than those toward the light. Phototropism can therefore cause plants to grow tall and thin as they
stretch and bend to find an adequate light source.

4.2.2.6 Photoperiodism
Photoperiodism is the regulation of physiology or development in response to day length, which allows
some plant species to flower – switch to reproductive mode – only at certain times of the year. Plants
generally fall into three photoperiod categories: long-day plants, short-day plants, and day-neutral
plants. The photoperiodism can also affect the growth of roots and stems, and the loss of leaves
(abscission) during different seasons. Long-day plants generally flower during the summer months
when nights are short. Examples of long-day plants are cabbages, lettuces, onions and spinach. On the

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other hand, short-day plants flower during seasons that have longer periods of night. They require a
continuous amount of darkness before flower development can begin. Strawberries are short-day
plants. The flowering of some plants, referred to as day-neutral plants, is not connected to a particular
photoperiod. These include chillies, cucumbers and tomatoes. Commercial growers can take
advantage of knowledge about a plant’s photoperiod by manipulating it. For example, plants can be
forced to flower by exposing or restricting their access to light, and can then be manipulated to
produce fruit or seeds outside of their usual season (Rauscher 2017).

4.2.3 Growth requirements

The primary environmental factors that affect plant growth are light, water, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
temperature, and relative humidity. These affect the plant’s growth hormones, making the plant grow
more quickly or more slowly.

4.2.3.1 Light
Light transmission, of the appropriate quantity and quality, is crucial for optimal photosynthesis,
growth, and yield. The sun produces photons with a wide range of wavelengths (Figure 8): UVC 100-
280 nanometres (nm), UVB 280-315 nm, UVA 315-400 nm, visible or photosynthetically active
radiation (PAR) 400-700 nm, far-red 700-800 nm, and infrared 800-4000 nm. Within the visible range
of the spectrum the wavebands can be further divided into colours: blue 400-500 nm, green 500-600
nm, and red 600-700 nm.

Figure 8: Chlorophyll absorption spectrum

(source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/145301455@N07/29979758460)

There are four types of chlorophyll:

- chlorophyll a, found in all higher plants, algae and cyanobacteria;
- chlorophyll b, found in higher plants and green algae;
- chlorophyll c, found in diatoms, dinoflagellates and brown algae; and
- chlorophyll d, found only in red algae.

Chlorophyll a is the most common photosynthetic pigment and absorbs blue, red and violet
wavelengths in the visible spectrum. It participates mainly in oxygenic photosynthesis in which oxygen
is the main by-product of the process. Chlorophyll b primarily absorbs blue light and is used to
complement the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a by extending the range of light wavelengths a

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photosynthetic organism is able to absorb. Both, chlorophyll a and b, work in concert to allow
maximum absorption of light in the blue to red spectrum.

Plant light responses have evolved to help plants acclimatise to a wide variety of light conditions. All
plants respond differently to high and low light conditions, but some species are adapted to perform
optimally under full sun, while others prefer more shade. In darkness, plants respire and produce CO2.
As the light intensity increases, the photosynthetic rate also increases, and at a certain light intensity
(the light compensation point), the rate of respiration is equal to the rate of photosynthesis (no net
uptake or loss of CO2). In addition to light intensity, the colour of light also influences the rate of
photosynthesis. Plants are able to use wavelengths between 400 nm and 700 nm for photosynthesis.
This waveband is called photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) (Davis 2015).

The amount of light available for plants is highly variable across the globe and through the seasons.
For example, at low solar elevations the light must pass through a larger volume of atmosphere before
it reaches the earth’s surface, which causes changes in the spectrum, as the atmosphere filters
proportionately more of the shorter wavelength of light, so it filters more UV than blue, and more blue
than green or red. Changes in spectral composition with season and location influence plant light
responses (Davis 2015).

4.2.3.2 Oxygen demand, temperature, and pH

Plants need appropriate levels (> 5 mg/L) of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water. Levels of 8 mg/l or
higher are generally considered to be good and much higher levels, as high as 30 mg/l can be beneficial.
This oxygen makes it easier for the plant to transport nutrients across its root surfaces and internalise
them. Appropriate oxygen levels are effective in reducing the threat from various opportunistic
pathogens, by reducing plant stress and improving plant vigor and resistance. While beneficial root
bacteria thrive in an oxygen rich environment, the pathogens do not. There is a direct correlation
between the amount of beneficial, oxygen-­­loving bacteria around the roots and the overall health of
a plant (Dramm 2014).

The ideal water temperature range for most vegetables is 14-22 ⁰C, though the optimal growing
temperatures varies between different plant species. Generally, it is the water temperature that has
the greatest effect on the plants, rather than the air temperature. The bacteria and other micro-
organisms that inhabit aquaponic systems also have a preferred temperature range. For example, the
nitrification bacteria prefer an average temperature of approximately 20 ⁰C (Somerville et al. 2014c).

The availability of many nutrients depends on the pH of the water. In general, the tolerance range for
most plants is pH 5.5-7.5. If the pH goes outside of this range, plants experience nutrient lockout, which
means that although the nutrients are present in the water, the plants are unable to use them. This is
especially true for iron, calcium and magnesium. However, there is evidence that nutrient lockout is
less common in mature aquaponic systems than in hydroponics, because aquaponics is an entire
ecosystem, while hydroponics is a semi-sterile undertaking. Consequently, in aquaponic systems there
are biological interactions occurring between the plant roots, bacteria and fungi that may allow
nutrient uptake even at higher levels than pH 7.5. However, the best course of action is to attempt to
maintain slightly acidic pH (6–7), but understand that higher pH (7–8) may also function (Somerville et
al. 2014c).

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4.2.3.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
During photosynthesis, plants use CO2 to make glucose, and release oxygen as a result. Increased
concentrations of CO2 increase photosynthesis, spurring plant growth. Fresh air contains CO2 at about
0.034%, which corresponds to 340 ppm by volume. For the majority of greenhouse crops, net
photosynthesis increases if CO2 levels increase from above 0.034% and up to 0.1%. Most crops show
that for any given level of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), increasing the CO2 level to 0.1%
will increase the photosynthesis by about 50%. The optimal CO2 concentration for growth and yield
seems to lie between 0.07% and 0.09%, and this CO2 level is generally recommended in greenhouses.
CO2 concentrations higher than 0.1% might cause growth reductions and leaf injuries (Mortensen
1987). Any actively growing crop in a tightly clad greenhouse with little or no ventilation can readily
reduce the CO2 level during the day to as low as 0.02% and the photosynthesis decreases
correspondingly (Blom et al. 2002).

4.2.3.4 Air temperature

Air temperature is one of the major environmental factors and influences the growth processes in
plants from the initial stages of development to flower formation. Each plant species has its own
optimal temperature range. Plants 'seek' to reach their optimal temperature, and a balance between
air temperature, relative humidity and light is important in this. If light levels are high, the plant will
heat up, resulting in a difference between plant temperature and air temperature. To cool down, the
plant's transpiration rate must increase. Generally, an increase or decrease in temperature above or
below the optimal level is known to alter several physiological processes in plants and damage the
plant cells, thus altering growth.

4.2.3.5 Relative humidity

Relative humidity (RH) is the amount of water vapour present in air expressed as a percentage of the
amount needed for saturation at the same temperature (Figure 9). Relative humidity directly
influences the water relations of a plant, and indirectly affects leaf growth, photosynthesis, and the
occurrence of diseases (Mortensen 1986). Under high RH the transpiration rate is reduced, turgor
pressure is high, and plant cells
grow. When RH is low,
transpiration increases, causing
water deficits in the plant which
may result in plant wilt. The water
deficits cause partial or full closure
of the stomata, thereby blocking
entry of carbon dioxide and
inhibiting photosynthesis. The
incidence of insect pests and
diseases is high under high RH, and
it also favours easy germination of
fungal spores on plant leaves
(Körner & Challa 2003).
Figure 9: The vapour pressure of water (highest curve). The right y-axis shows the
equivalent concentration. The finer lines join points of constant relative humidity. (source:
https://www.conservationphysics.org/intro/fundamentals.html)

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 16

4.2.4 References
Blom, T. J., Straver, W. A., Ingratta, F. J., Khosla, S., & Brown, W. 2002. Carbon dioxide in greenhouses.
Ontario. Ministry of Agriculture and Food.

Davis, P. 2015. Lighting: The Principles. Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board Technical
Guide.
Dramm, 2014. Dissolved Oxygen in the Greenhouse. White Paper.
Körner, O., & Challa, H. (2003). Process-based humidity control regime for greenhouse crops.
Computers and electronics in agriculture, 39(3), 173-192.
Liscum, E., Askinosie, S. K., Leuchtman, D. L., Morrow, J., Willenburg, K. T., & Coats, D. R. (2014).
Phototropism: growing towards an understanding of plant movement. The Plant Cell, 26(1), 38-55.
Mortensen, L. M. 1987. CO2 enrichment in greenhouses. Crop responses. Scientia Horticulturae, 33(1-
2), 1-25.)

Mortensen, L. M. (1986). Effect of relative humidity on growth and flowering of some greenhouse
plants. Scientia horticulturae, 29(4), 301-307

Rauscher, F. 2017. Improving the Flavor of Crops with Photoperiodism. Maximum Yield magazine.
Somerville et al. 2014c. Plants in aquaponics. In Somerville, C., Cohen, M., Pantanella, E., Stankus, A. &
Lovatelli, A. Small-Scale Aquaponic Food Production – Integrated Fish and Plant Farming. FAO Fisheries
and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 589. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, pp. 83-102.
Sterling, T. M. (2004) Transpiration – Water Movement through Plants’
Willits, D. H., & Peet, M. M. 1989. Predicting yield responses to different greenhouse CO2 enrichment
schemes: cucumbers and tomatoes. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 44(3), 275–293.

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 17

4.3 Nutrient Supply

4.3.1 Plant requirements

4.3.1.1 Essential nutrient elements
Plants require 16 (Resh 2013) or according to other sources 17 (Bittszansky et al. 2016) essential
nutrient elements without which they are unable to complete a normal life cycle. A plant’s sufficiency
range is the range of nutrient amount necessary to meet the plant’s nutritional needs and maximize
growth. The width of this range depends on individual plant species and the particular nutrient.
Nutrient levels outside of a plant’s sufficiency range cause overall crop growth and health to decline
due to either a deficiency or toxicity.

Plants normally obtain their water and mineral needs from the soil. In soilless cultivation they need to
be supplied with water and minerals. In aquaponics, the situation is complicated by the fact, that the
system water contains a highly complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds originating from
fish waste and fish feed. There are two major categories of nutrients: macronutrients and
micronutrients (Figure 10). Both types are essential, but in differing amounts. Much larger quantities
of the six macronutrients are needed compared with the micronutrients, which are only needed in
trace amounts (Jones & Olson-Rutz 2016).

Figure 10: Classification of essential elements (nutrients) that are needed for the plant growth

Macronutrients are divided into three groups. The terms 'primary' and 'secondary' refer to the
quantity, and not to the importance of a nutrient. A lack of a secondary nutrient is just as detrimental
to plant growth as a deficiency of any one of the three primary nutrients, or a deficiency of
micronutrients. A basic understanding of the function of each nutrient is important in order to
appreciate how they affect plant growth (Table 3). A good orientation of how much of particular
nutrient is required gives the elemental composition of plant material (Figure 11). If nutrient
deficiencies occur, it is important to be able to identify which element is lacking in the system and
adjust it accordingly by adding supplemental fertilizer or increasing.

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Table 3: Essential elements and their role in plants (adapted after Resh 2013)
Element Role
Carbon C forms the backbone of most biomolecules, including proteins, starches and cellulose.
(C) Photosynthesis converts CO2 from the air or water into carbohydrates which are used to
store and transport energy within the plant.

Hydrogen H is constituent of all organic compounds of which carbon is a constituent. It is obtained

(H) almost entirely from water. It is important in cation exchange in plant–soil relations. H+
ions are required to drive the electron transport chain in photosynthesis and in
respiration.

Oxygen O is a component of many organic and inorganic compounds in plants. Only a few organic
(O) compounds, such as carotene, do not contain O. It can be acquired in many forms: O 2 and
CO2, H2O, NO3-, H2PO4- and SO42−. It is also involved in anion exchange between roots and
the external medium. Plants produce O2 during photosynthesis but then require O 2 to
undergo aerobic respiration and break down this glucose to produce ATP.

Nitrogen N is part of a large number of organic compounds, including amino acids, proteins,
(N) coenzymes, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. It is essential for photosynthesis, cell growth,
and metabolic processes. Usually, dissolved N is in the form of nitrate, but plants can
utilize moderate quantities of ammonia and even free amino acids.

Phosphorus P is part of the phospholipid backbone of nucleic acids (such as DNA, deoxyribonucleic
(P) acid), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP, the molecule that stores energy in the cells), and
is contained in certain coenzymes. It is essential for photosynthesis, as well as the
formation of oils and sugars, and encourages germination and root development in
seedlings. As young tissues require more energy, it is particularly important for juveniles.

Potassium K acts as a coenzyme or activator for many enzymes. Protein synthesis requires high
(K) potassium levels. It is used for cell signalling via controlled ion flow through membranes. K
also controls the opening of the stomata, and is involved in the development of flowers
and fruit. It is also involved in the production and transportation of sugars, water uptake,
disease resistance, and the ripening of fruits. K does not form a stable structural part of
any molecules inside plant cells.

Calcium Ca is found in cell walls as calcium pectate, which cements together primary walls of
(Ca) adjacent cells. It is involved in strengthening stems, and contributes to root development.
Required to maintain membrane integrity and is part of the enzyme α-amylase. It
precipitates as crystals of calcium oxalate in vacuoles. Sometimes interferes with the
ability of magnesium to activate enzymes.

Magnesium Mg is an essential part of the chlorophyll molecule. Without Mg, chlorophyll cannot
(Mg) capture the solar energy needed for photosynthesis. Mg is also required for activation of
many enzymes needed for growth. It is essential to maintain ribosome structure, thus
contributing to protein synthesis.

Sulphur S is incorporated into several organic compounds including amino acids (methionine and
(S) cysteine) and proteins (like photosynthetic enzymes). Coenzyme A and the vitamins
thiamine and biotin also contain S.

Boron B is one of the less understood nutrients. It is used with Ca in cell wall synthesis and is
(B) essential for cell division. B increases the rate of transport of sugars from mature plant
leaves to actively growing regions (growing point, roots, root nodules in legumes) and also
to developing fruits. B requirements are much higher for reproductive growth as it helps
with pollination, and fruit and seed development. Other functions include N metabolism,
formation of certain proteins, regulation of hormone levels and transportation of K to
stomata (which helps regulate internal water balance).

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 Element Role

Chlorine Cl is classified as a micronutrient however plants may take up as much Cl as they do

(Cl) secondary elements such as S. Cl is important in the opening and closing of stomata. It is
required for photosynthesis, where it acts as an enzyme activator during the production of
oxygen from water. It functions in cation balance and transport within the plant. It is
involved in disease resistance and tolerance. Cl competes with nitrate uptake, tending to
promote the use of ammonium nitrogen. Lowering nitrate uptake may be a factor in
chlorine’s role in disease suppression, since high plant nitrates have been associated with
disease severity.

Copper Cu activates some enzymes which are involved in lignin synthesis and it is essential in
(Cu) several enzyme systems. It is also required in photosynthesis, plant respiration, and assists
in plant metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins. Cu also serves to intensify flavour and
colour in vegetables, and colour in flowers.

Iron Fe is required for the synthesis of chlorophyll and some other pigments and is an essential
(Fe) part of ferredoxins. Ferredoxins are small proteins containing Fe and S atoms that act as
electron carriers in photosynthesis and respiration. Fe is also part of the nitrate reductase
and activates certain other enzymes.

Manganese Mn activates one or more enzymes in fatty acid synthesis, the enzymes responsible for
(Mn) DNA and RNA formation, and the enzymes involved in respiration. It participates directly in
the photosynthetic production of O2 from H2O and is involved in chloroplast formation,
nitrogen assimilation and synthesis of some enzymes. It plays role in pollen germination,
pollen tube growth, root cell elongation, and resistance to root pathogens.

Molybdenum Mo acts as an electron carrier in the conversion of nitrate to ammonium before it is used
(Mo) to synthesize amino acids within the plant. It is essential for nitrogen fixation. Within the
plant, Mo is used in conversion of inorganic phosphorus into organic forms.

Nickel Ni is the metal cofactor of urease-enzymes: without it they are inactive (Polacco et al.
(Ni) 2013). Ureases are present in bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants - but they are absent from
fish and other animals. Urease enzymes are responsible for the catabolic detoxification of
urea, potentially phytotoxic waste excreted by the fish.

Zinc Zn activates a series of enzymes that are responsible for the synthesis of certain proteins,
(Zn) including some important enzymes like alcohol dehydrogenase, lactic acid dehydrogenase
etc. It is used in the formation of chlorophyll and some carbohydrates, conversion of
starches to sugars and its presence in plant tissue helps the plant to withstand cold
temperatures. Zn is required for the formation of auxins, which are hormones which help
with growth regulation and stem elongation.

Figure 11: Representation of nutrient amounts in dried plant material

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4.3.1.2 Nutrient availability and pH
Nutrients exist both as complex, insoluble compounds and as simple forms that are usually water
soluble and readily available to plants. The insoluble forms must be broken down to available forms in
order to benefit the plant. These available forms are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4: Absorbed nutrient forms and approximate concentrations in dry plant tissue
(adapted from Jones & Olson-Rutz 2016)
Element Form absorbed Concentration range in dry plant
tissue (%)
Nitrogen (N) NO3- (nitrate) / NH4+ (ammonium) 1–5
- 2-
Phosphorus (P) H2PO4 , HPO4 (phosphate) 0.1 – 0.5
Potassium (K) K+ 0.5 – 0.8
Calcium (Ca) Ca2+ 0.2 – 1.0
Magnesium (Mg) Mg2+ 0.1 – 0.4
Sulphur (S) SO42- (sulfate) 0.1 – 0.4
Boron (B) H3BO3 (boric acid) / H2BO3- (borate) 0.0006 – 0.006
-
Chlorine (Cl) Cl (chloride) 0.1 – 1.0
Copper (Cu) Cu2+ 0.0005 – 0.002
Iron (Fe) Fe2+, Fe3+ 0.005 – 0.025
Manganese (Mn) Mn2+ 0.002 – 0.02
Molybdenum (Mo) MoO42- (molybdate) 0.000005 – 0.00002
Nickel (Ni) Ni2+ 0.00001 – 0.0001
2+
Zinc (Zn) Zn 0.0025 – 0.015

The pH of the solution determines the availability of the various elements to the plant (Figure 12). The
pH value is a measure of acidity. A solution is acidic if the pH is less than 7, neutral if the pH is at 7, and
alkaline if the pH is above 7. Since pH is a logarithmic function, a one-unit change in pH means a 10-
fold change in H+ concentration. Therefore, any small change in pH can have a large effect on the ion
availability to plants. Most plants prefer a pH between 5.5 and 6.5 for optimum nutrient uptake.

Figure 12: The effect of pH on the availability of plant nutrients (source: Roques et al. 2013)

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4.3.1.3 Nutritional disorders in plants
A nutritional disorder is caused by either excess or deficiency of a certain nutrient (Resh 2013). It is
important to detect nutritional disorders as soon as possible, to prevent spreading of the symptoms
and eventual death of the plant. However, the precise diagnosis of nutrient disorders is not easy,
because many deficiencies have overlapping symptoms. To make things more complicated, there are
also plant diseases that can cause similar symptoms. The only way to be able to distinguish these
symptoms from one another is to acquire knowledge through practice. Observe your plants, note the
different symptoms, and relate these to the results of the water quality analysis. Also, a beginner
should always consult an expert.

One aspect of the diagnosis is the distinction between mobile (Mg, P, K, Zn, N) and immobile elements
(Ca, Fe, S, B, Cu, Mn). All nutrients move relatively easily from the root to the growing portion of the
plant through the xylem. However, mobile elements can also be repositioned from older leaves to the
actively growing region of the plant (younger leaves), when the deficiency occurs. As a result, the
deficiency symptoms first appear on the older leaves. Conversely, immobile elements, once
incorporated into the various structures, cannot be disassembled from these structures and re-
transported through the plant. Deficiency symptoms first appear on the upper young leaves of the
plant. Other aspects of diagnosis and their terminology are summarized in Table 5. Descriptions of
deficiency and toxicity symptoms for essential elements are presented in Table 6.

Table 5: Terminology used for the description of symptoms of nutritional disorders (adapted from Resh 2013)

Term Description
Generalized Symptoms spread over entire plant or leaf
Localized Symptoms limited to one area of plant or leaf
Drying Necrosis—scorched, dry, papery appearance
Marginal Chlorosis or necrosis—on margins of leaves; usually spreads inward as symptom
progresses
Interveinal chlorosis Chlorosis (yellowing) between veins of leaves
Mottling Irregular blotchy pattern of indistinct light (chlorosis) and dark areas; often
associated with virus diseases
Spots Discoloured area with distinct boundaries adjacent to normal tissue
Colour of leaf Often a particular coloration occurs on the lower surface of the leaves, for
undersides example, phosphorus deficiency—purple coloration of leaf undersides
Cupping Leaf margins or tips may cup or bend upward or downward
Checkered (reticulate) Pattern of small veins of leaves remaining green while interveinal tissue
yellows— manganese deficiency
Brittle tissue Leaves, petioles, stems may lack flexibility, break off easily when touched—
calcium or boron deficiency
Soft tissue Leaves very soft, easily damaged—nitrogen excess
Dieback Leaves or growing point dies rapidly and dries out—boron or calcium
deficiencies
Stunting Plant shorter than normal
Spindly Growth of stem and leaf petioles very thin and succulent

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Table 6: Deficiency and toxicity symptoms for essential elements (adapted from Resh 2013)

Element Deficiency Toxicity

Nitrogen Reduction in protein results in stunted growth and Plants usually dark green in colour
(N) dormant lateral buds. Stems, petioles, and lower leaf with abundant foliage but usually
surfaces of corn and tomato can turn purple. The with a restricted root system. Can
chlorophyll content of leaves is reduced, resulting in cause difficulties in flower and
general pale-yellow colour, especially older leaves. fruit set.
Flowering, fruiting, protein, and starch contents are
reduced.
Phosphorus Poor root development, stunted growth. Reddening No primary symptoms yet noted.
(P) of the leaves. Dark green leaves (may be confused Sometimes Cu and Zn deficiencies
with excessive N supply, as it also leads to darker occur in the presence of excess P.
green leaves). Delayed maturity. The tips of plant
leaves may also appear burnt. Deficiency symptoms
occur first in mature leaves.
Potassium Deficiency will cause lower water uptake and will Usually not excessively absorbed
(K) impair disease resistance. Symptoms first visible on by plants. Excess K may lead to
older leaves. Margins of leaves curl inward. In dicots, Mg, and possibly Mn, Zn or Fe
these leaves are initially chlorotic but soon scattered deficiency.
burnt spots (dead areas) develop. In monocots, the
tips and margins of the leaves die first.
Calcium Signs of deficiencies include tip burn on leafy plants No consistent visible symptoms.
(Ca) and roots, blossom end rot on fruity plants, and
improper growth of tomatoes. Young leaves are
affected before old leaves.
Magnesium Without sufficient amounts of Mg, plants begin to No information.
(Mg) degrade the chlorophyll in the old leaves. This causes
interveinal chlorosis, the main symptom of Mg
deficiency. Later, necrotic spots may occur in the
chlorotic tissue. Growth is reduced.
Sulphur Not often encountered. S deficiency can be easily Reduction in growth and leaf size.
(S) confused with lack of N. Symptoms, like delayed and Sometimes interveinal yellowing
stunted growth, are similar. However, general or leaf burning.
chlorosis occurs on younger leaves first, whereas N
deficiency symptoms are first visible on older foliage.
Boron Symptoms vary with species and first appear on new Yellowing of leaf tip followed by
(B) leaves and the growing points (which often die. The progressive necrosis starting on
branches and the roots are often short and swollen. the leaf margin and progressing
Leaves show mottled chlorosis, thickening, toward midrib. Unlike most
brittleness, curling, wilting. Internal tissues nutrient deficiencies that typically
sometimes disintegrate or discolour. Since B helps exhibit symptoms uniformly across
transport sugars, its deficiency causes a reduction of the crop, B symptoms can appear
exudates and sugars from plant roots, which can randomly within a crop (Mattson
reduce the attraction and colonization of & Krug 2015).
mycorrhizal fungi.
Chlorine Wilting of leaves, often with stubby tips. Leaf Excessive Cl can be as a major
(Cl) mottling and leaflet blade tip wilting with chlorosis component of salinity stress and
and necrosis. Roots become stunted and thickened toxic to plants (Chen et al. 2010).
near tips. Chlorine deficiency in cabbage is marked Symptoms include scorched leaf
by an absence of the typical cabbage odour. margins, bronzing, yellowing,
excessive abscission, reduced leaf
size, lower growth rate. Cl
accumulation is higher in older
tissue.

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 23

 Element Deficiency Toxicity
Copper Natural deficiency is rare. Typically, the symptoms Reduced growth followed by
(Cu) start as cupping of young leaves, with small necrotic symptoms of iron chlorosis,
spots on the leaf margins. As the symptoms stunting, reduced branching,
progress, the newest leaves are smaller in size, lose thickening, and abnormal
their sheen and may wilt. The growth points (apical darkening of rootlets.
meristems) may become necrotic and die. Plants
typically have a compact appearance as the stem
length between the leaves shortens. Excess K, P or
other micronutrients can indirectly cause Cu
deficiency.
Iron Pronounced interveinal chlorosis. Similar to Mg Not often evident in natural
(Fe) deficiency, but here chlorosis will start at the tips of conditions. Has been observed
younger leaves and will work its way to older leaves. after the application of sprays
Other signs, always be coupled with the leaf where it appears as necrotic spots.
chlorosis, can include poor growth and leaf loss.
Manganese Leaves turn yellow and there is also interveinal Sometimes chlorosis, uneven
(Mn) chlorosis, first on young leaves. Necrotic lesions and chlorophyll distribution. Reduction
leaf shedding can develop later. Disorganization of in growth.
chloroplast lamellae. Mn may be unavailable to
plants where pH is high. This is why it often occurs
together with Fe deficiency, and also has similar
symptoms.
The symptoms of Mn deficiency are also similar to
Mg because Mn is also involved in photosynthesis.
Molybdenum As Mo is closely linked to N, its deficiency can easily Rarely observed. Tomato leaves
(Mo) resemble N deficiency. Deficiency symptoms start on turn golden yellow.
older or midstem leaves: interveinal chlorosis, in
some crops the whole leaf turns pale; leaf marginal
necrosis or cupping. Leaves can be misshapen. Crops
that are most sensitive to Mo deficiency are crucifers
(broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage), legumes (beans,
peas, clovers), poinsettias and primula.
Nickel Ni is part of enzymes that detoxify urea. Although Ni is strongly phytotoxic at higher
(Ni) urea is an excellent source of nitrogen for plants concentration. In induces change
(Yang et al. 2015), at higher concentrations it is in activity of antioxidant enzymes,
strongly toxic to plant tissues. Typical symptoms of and has a negative effect on
urea toxicity, and potentially also of Ni deficiency, photosynthesis and respiration.
are leaf burn and chlorosis (Khemira et al. 2000). Excess Ni causes are chlorosis,
necrosis and wilting. Cell division
and plant growth are inhibited.
High uptake of Ni induces a
decrease in water content, which
can act as an indicator for Ni
toxicity in plants (Bhalerao et al.
2015).
Zinc Stunted growth, with shortened internodes and Excess Zn commonly produces iron
(Zn) smaller leaves. Leaf margins are often distorted or chlorosis in plants.
puckered. Sometimes interveinal chlorosis.

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 24

4.3.2 Nutrient supply in aquaponics
The chemical composition of system water in aquaponics is very complex. Besides a large array of
dissolved ions, it contains organic substances resulting from the release of products of fish metabolism
and feed digestion, as well as substances excreted by the plants. These substances are largely
unknown, and their interactions can further influence the chemical composition and pH of aquaponic
nutrient solutions. All this can exert manifold, but mostly yet unknown, effects on the nutrient uptake
by plants, on fish health, and on microbial activity.

Nutrients enter an aquaponic system via added water and fish feed (Schmautz et al. 2016). In terms of
elemental composition, fish feed contains about 7.5 % nitrogen, 1.3% phosphorus and 46% carbon
(Schmautz, unpublished data). In terms of organic compounds, fish feed contains proteins (fishmeal or
plant based), fats (fish oil, plant oils) and carbohydrates (Boyd 2015). Herbivorous fish (like carp) and
omnivorous fish (like tilapia) need only about 25% protein in their feed, compared to carnivorous fish
which require around 55% protein (Boyd 2015). Both fishmeal and soya are unsustainable (for different
reasons), so there is intense research towards finding suitable fishmeal replacements and plant-based
diets (Boyd 2015; Davidson et al. 2013; Tacon & Metian 2008).

If the feeding ratios are calculated correctly, all the feeds added to the system are eaten, and only
whatever is not used for growth and metabolism is excreted (Figure 13). The proportion of excreted
nutrients also depends on the quality and digestibility of the diet (Buzby & Lin 2014). The digestibility
of the fish feed, the size of the faeces, and the settling ratio are all very important for the system
operation (Yavuzcan Yildiz et al. 2017). Therefore, the nutrient composition of aquaponic system
water, resulting from the quality of the added water, the added fish feeds, and the entire metabolic
reactions in the system, is extremely complex and does not always match the plant requirements.
However, the fish health and welfare should be of central concern, and fish feed should be chosen to
fit the fish species at each development stage according to their needs. The availability of nutrients
that can be assimilated by plants has to be regulated in a second step.

Figure 13: Environmental flow of nitrogen and phosphorus (in %) for (a) Nile Tilapia cage production (after
Montanhini Neto & Ostrensky 2015); (b) RAS production (data from Strauch et al. 2018). 'Unexplained'
denotes the fraction of N and P that could not be attributed to any category

The data in Table 7 show that most plant nutrients, but especially P and Fe, were at significantly lower
concentrations in the investigated aquaponic system as compared with the standard hydroponic

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 25

solutions. This seems to be a typical situation in aquaponic operation; however, the growth rates of
aquaponic crops are nevertheless in most cases satisfactory (Schmautz, unpublished data). Let us have
a closer look at this phenomenon.

Unfortunately, interpretation of these data is very difficult. The reason is that very recently in plant
nutrition the nearly two-century-old 'Liebig's law' (plant growth is controlled by the scarcest resource)
has been superseded by complicated mathematical models that take the interactions between the
individual nutrient elements, compounds, and ions into account (Baxter 2015). These methods do not
allow a simple evaluation of the effects of changes in nutrient levels in a hydroponic or aquaponic
system. Also, we must bear in mind that a perfect formulation of nutritional requirements for a
particular crop does not exist. The nutritional requirements vary with variety, life cycle stage, day
length, and weather conditions (Bittszansky et al. 2016; Resh 2013; Sonneveld & Voogt 2009).

Very generally, for good plant growth in hydroponics, nitrogen concentration should stay above 165
mg/l N, phosphorus above 50 mg/l, and potassium above 210 mg/l (Resh 2013). In aquaponics, such
high concentrations are difficult to achieve for several relevant elements because of three reasons:
1. The higher the concentrations in the water, the higher is the loss of nutrients through water
exchange or sludge. However, even in closed system, a certain level of water exchange is
required, in order to compensate for evapotranspiration losses and to reduce accumulation of
unwanted components.
2. With the elevated concentration of nutrients in the water, components like salt or toxins
accumulate in the system as well.
3. Phosphorus reacts with calcium if this is present in higher concentrations and precipitates as
calcium phosphate.

Plants growing in the hydroponic unit of an aquaponic system have specific requirements which
depend on the plant variety and the growth stage (Resh 2013). Nutrients can be supplemented either
via the system water (Schmautz et al. 2016) or via foliar application (Roosta & Hamidpour 2011).

Table 7: Comparison of concentrations of nutrients in standard hydroponic solution and in water from a closed
aquaponic system (Schmautz, unpublished data)
Concentration [mg/l]
Aquaponics Hydroponics
(Schmautz, (optimized for Concentration ratio
unpublished) lettuce, Resh 2013) (hydroponic/aquaponic)
Macronutrients
N (as NO3-) 147 165 1.1
N (as NH4+) 2.8 15 5.4
3-
P (as PO4 ) 5.1 50 10
K (as K+) 84 210 2.5
Mg (as Mg2+) 18 45 2.5
Ca (as Ca2+) 180 190 1.1
S (as SO42-) 21 65 3.1
Micronutrients
Fe (as Fe2+) 0.2 4 20
Zn (Zn2+) 0.2 0.1 0.5
B (as B[OH4]-) 0.1 0.5 5
Mn (as Mn2+) 1.4 0.5 0.4
Cu (as Cu2+) 0.1 0.1 1
2-
Mo (as MoO4 ) 0.002 0.05 25

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 26

Usually, with appropriate fish stocking rates the levels of nitrogen (N, as nitrate) are sufficient for good
plant growth, whereas the levels of several other nutrients, notably iron (Fe), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) are generally insufficient for maximum plant growth. As seen in
the table, other micronutrients could be limiting too. In aquaponic, it is especially important to monitor
pH, because at a pH above 7 several nutrients (Figure 12) may precipitate from water and become thus
unavailable for plants.

Potassium (K) is not necessary for fish which leads to a low potassium composition of the fish feed and
to even lower levels of potassium available for the plants (Seawright et al. 1998). To supply potassium,
KOH pH buffer is often used, as the pH often decreases in aquaponics due to nitrification (Graber &
Junge 2009). This has the added benefit of raising the potassium levels, although it can be toxic to fish.
The LC50 value of acute fish toxicity was reported to be in the order of 80 mg/l. In aquaponic systems
planted with tomato, potassium accumulated mainly in the fruits (Schmautz et al. 2016).

Iron (Fe) is also often a limiting factor in aquaponics, therefore it can be added as a preventive measure
before the deficiencies become apparent. High concentrations of iron will not harm an aquaponic
system, although it may give a slight red colour to the water. In order to ensure easy uptake by plants,
iron has to be added as chelated iron, otherwise known as sequestered iron. There are different types
of iron chelates: Fe-EDTA, Fe-IDHA, Fe-DTPA, Fe-EDDHA and Fe-HBED. Iron can be added into the
system water (for example 2 mg L−1 once every two weeks) or sprayed directly on the leaves (foliar
application) of 0.5 g L−1) (Roosta & Hamidpour 2011).

The main source of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S) is tap water, which facilitates the
absorption by the plants as the nutrients are already available (Delaide et al. 2017). Nevertheless, these
elements are often at low levels in aquaponic systems (Graber & Junge 2009; Seawright et al. 1998,
Schmautz, unpublished data). Especially Ca is often a limiting factor in aquaponics, as it can only be
transported through active xylem transpiration. When conditions are too humid, calcium can be
available but locked out because the plants are not transpiring. Increasing air flow with vents or fans
can prevent this problem. Otherwise, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) ought
to be supplemented.

Zinc (Zn) is used as part of the galvanisation process of some metal parts, which may be used in
construction of AP (fish tanks, bolts etc.), and it is found in fish waste. While zinc deficiencies are rare,
zinc toxicity can pose a problem in aquaponics, because while plants can tolerate an excess, fish
cannot. Levels of zinc should be kept between 0.03 - 0.05 mg/l. Most fish will be stressed at 0.1 to 1
mg/l, and will start dying at 4-8 mg/l. The best way to keep zinc levels within harmless range is to avoid
galvanised equipment (Storey 2018). Nevertheless, in some systems zinc deficiencies might occur. Zinc
deficiency can be alleviated by foliar application of chelated zinc (Treadwell et al. 2010).

The question thus arises whether it is necessary and effective to add nutrients to aquaponic systems
(Nozzi et al. 2018). Provided that the system is stocked with enough fish, and the pH is within correct
level it is usually not necessary to add nutrients for plants with a short cropping cycle which do not
produce fruits (e.g. leafy greens; Nozzi et al. 2018). In contrast, fruiting vegetables (e.g. tomatoes,
aubergines) require nutrient supplementation. The amount of required mineral fertilizers can be
calculating by using the HydroBuddy software (Fernandez 2016). In addition to our experience in
supplementing mineral nutrients, in the future commercially available organic hydroponic fertilizers
should be tested in order to define which ones do not harm fish. The treatment of the fish sludge in a

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 27

digester, and re-introduction of this digestate into the water system, has been suggested to increase
nutrient supply to the plants (Goddek et al. 2016). Another possible benefit of supplying the aquaponic
system with organic, instead of mineral, nutrients could be a positive effect on the microbial
population.

4.3.3 Monitoring of the nutrient solution

4.3.3.1 Why monitor?
The need for monitoring in aquaponics arises from two points of view: legislation and management.
The holistic nature of aquaponics means that it falls into several different legislative categories with
regards to policy at the EU level. The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and the Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP), as well as policies on food safety, animal health and welfare, plant health, and
environmental legislation, among others, may all apply, depending on the operational characteristics
of the system. The legislation and regulations which need to be observed during aquaponic production
include, but are not limited to:
• Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) (WFD) – Among other things, the WFD lays down
the rules for monitoring, sampling, and analysing effluent discharge into watercourses. It also
requires member states to set up monitoring regimes within their country, which often
includes inspections at discharge sites to analyse effluent
• Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC) specifies the parameter limits of effluents that can be
discharged
• Food safety regulations
• Animal Welfare and Fish Health regulations, such as Directive 91/496/EEC, which lays down
the principles governing the organisation of veterinary checks on animals entering the EU from
third countries

In most countries help will be available from government agencies to keep aquaponic farmers in line
with the law, and they should therefore seek comprehensive information from the competent
authorities concerning their particular situation.

Regular monitoring of parameters is an indispensable part of the management, operation, and

maintenance of the aquaponic system. Monitoring the water quality, and the health of the fish and
the plants, will indicate how well the system is performing and has significant cost benefits. Keeping
good records of your measurements can help greatly in observing trends and diagnosing future
problems. It is important to record all of your readings. Parameters such as ammonia, nitrite, dissolved
oxygen, and pH can give an indication of whether the system is underperforming. Identifying the
parameter that is problematic (i.e. outside of the desired range) helps the operator to fix the problem
quickly and restore the functioning of the aquaponic system back to optimum levels, which will result
in the highest yield of fish and plants.

4.3.3.2 Different monitoring approaches

The monitoring approaches for testing the quality of aquaponic water range from very simple and
cheap to complex and involving expensive analytical equipment. The simplest and cheapest approach
is to use test strips, which you submerge in the water. These contain a reagent which changes colour

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 28

when it comes into contact with the water. The intensity of this reaction can be compared to the colour
chart provided with the kit, which will then give a relatively accurate measure of what is being tested
for. The strips can usually only be used for a limited range. For example, some test strips for pH only
work within a pH range from 5 to 8. If the pH in the aquaponic system falls outside of this range (below
5 or above 8), then the test strips may give false results.

The next level in terms of complexity and cost are tests using chemical reagents and a colour chart.
Here the sample is put into a small test tube and drops of reagents are added according to the
instructions. A reaction occurs and the colour of the solution in the test tube is compared to the colour
chart that comes with the kit. A more precise and advanced version of these tests measures the colour
with spectrophotometers.

Spectrometry is a method of quantitative analysis that utilises the absorbance of light. Usually a water
sample is filtered to remove suspended solids and a reagent specific to the desired test is added. This
is then placed inside a spectrophotometer for analysis. The reading given by the spectrophotometer
can then be related to known standard curves for that particular chemical parameter to give a
concentration. Some manufacturers also provide test kits for a quicker analysis, without the need to
use calibration curves, and these are available for a wide range of water quality parameters.

The most advanced and expensive approach to monitoring involves using probes and electronic
meters. The probes are connected to a digital electronic meter and submerged in the water.
Continuous online monitors can also be installed inside the fish tank, with a probe constantly in contact
with the water (Klinger-Bowen et al. 2011).

The chosen monitoring approach is usually associated with the size of the aquaponic system and the
level of productivity. Professional commercial systems usually employ continuous online monitors for
temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), water level and electrical conductivity. On the other hand, hobby
backyard systems often rely on the simplest and cheapest approaches, such as test strips, or even just
visual inspections of water turbidity, oxygenation in biofilter, plant and fish health.

4.3.3.3 Classification of monitoring parameters

The parameters that need to be monitored in an aquaponic system are the water quality, the health
of the fish, and the health of the plants, and can be classified into the following types: 1) chemical, 2)
physical, and 3) biological. Chemical parameters reflect the quality of the water and include pH, DO,
ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphorus content, and water hardness. Physical parameters include water
and air temperature, relative humidity, and UV light intensity. Biological parameters provide direct
insight to system performance, and include everything from the mass and health of the fish and the
plants, nutrient deficiencies in the plants, algae contamination, and other microbiological parameters.
Each organism – the fish, the plants, and the bacteria in the biofilter – has a specific tolerance range
for each physio-chemical parameter (Table 8). The tolerance ranges are relatively similar for all three
organisms, but there is a need for compromise and therefore some organisms might not be functioning
at their optimum level (Somerville et al. 2014a).

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 29

 Table 8: Optimal ranges of physio-chemical parameters for fish (warm- and cold-water), plants and
nitrifying bacteria
Organism type Temperature pH Ammonia Nitrite Nitrate DO
(oC) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Warm water 22-32 6-8.5 <3 <1 <300 4-6
fish
Cold water fish 10-18 6-8.5 <1 <0.2 <300 6-8
Plants 16-30 5.5-6.5 <30 <1 - >5
Bacteria 14-34 6-8.5 <3 <1 - 4-8

The goal is to maintain a healthy ecosystem with all parameters at levels that satisfy the requirements
for fish, vegetables, and bacteria simultaneously. There are occasions when the water quality will need
to be actively manipulated in order to meet these criteria and keep the system functioning properly.

4.3.3.4 Frequency of monitoring

Frequency of monitoring varies depending on the parameter being monitored. As a general rule, start-
up systems (at initial stocking of plants and animals) should be tested daily so that adjustments can be
made quickly when needed. For example, feeding levels can be reduced, aeration can be increased, or
water can be diluted in response to high ammonia levels. Once nutrient cycles are balanced (after a
minimum of 4 weeks without significant fluctuations in parameters), weekly monitoring is usually
sufficient to maintain good water quality. However, if a problem is suspected (change in the
appearance or behaviour of the fish, deficiency indicators in plants), then more frequent monitoring
of the water quality should be resumed. Therefore, daily monitoring of the health of the fish and plants
is essential in order to discover potential problems early. It is also very important to keep good records,
e.g. appearance and behaviour of the fish (normal/out of the ordinary), appearance of the plants
(normal/unhealthy look), and water chemistry parameters (pH, DO, ammonia, nitrites, nitrates). This
way, the cause of a potential problem can be identified more easily and, in case the problem arises
again, the any amendments can be quickly implemented (Sallenave 2016; Somerville et al. 2014a). An
example of a data logbook is shown in Figure 14.

Sampling/ monitoring
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS CHEMICAL PARAMETERS BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
details

Electrical Water
Time of Dissolved Ammonia Phosphate
conductivity temperature pH Nitrate [mg/L] Nitrite [mg/L] Appearance & Appearance of
Date sampling oxygen [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] Mass of fish [g]
[μS/cm] [°C] behaviour of fish plants
(h:min)
SS1 SS2 SS3 SS1 SS2 SS3 SS1 SS2 SS3 SS1 SS2 SS3 SS1 SS2 SS3 SS1 SS2 SS3 SS1 SS2 SS3 SS1 SS2 SS3

Figure 14: An example of monitoring data log table. SS in the table stands for 'sample site'

Course reader Week 4 - Hydroponics Part 1 30

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