CEBU TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND ASSESSMENT ACADEMY, INC.

2nd Flr., BAI Center, Cebu South Road, Basak San Nicolas, Cebu City
[email protected] |(032) 401 – 0531| +63 933 345 5013

STATISTICS
AND
PROBABILITY
Voctech Senior High School
Grade 11

2nd Semester
Module No. 1

___________________
Name of Student

Daryl Joane P. Coronel

Teacher

Statistics and
GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST

Probability
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Statistics deals with data; its importance has been recognized by governments, by the private sector, and across
disciplines because of the need for evidence-based decision making. It has become even more important in the
past few years, now that more and more data is being collected, stored, analyzed and re-analyzed. Statistics and
Probability can direct students into examining the context of data, identifying the consequences and implications
of stories behind Statistics and Probability, thus becoming critical consumers of information. It is further hoped
that the competencies gained by students in this course will help them become more statistical literate, and more
prepared for whatever employment choices (and higher education specializations) given that employers are
recognizing the importance of having their employee know skills on data management and analysis in this very
data-centric world.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
Hello learners, welcome to this course. Before you start your Statistics and Probability learning journey, please
take note of the following General Instructions for the course.
1. The modules are composed of the following parts:
a. Lesson Proper (contains the information you will need to learn for a particular topic)
b. Activity Sheets
c. Summative Assessment Activity
2. Doing the Activities
a. Answer sheets are provided. You will have to write your answer on the designated answer sheet,
however you may write on a separate sheet of long bond paper if the space does not suffice.
b. Margins are at .5in on all sides.
c. Write the following information at the uppermost portion directly above the top margin of the paper:

Name: ___________________________ Gr. & Section: ________ Track/Strand: __________

Subject: __________________________ Topic: ______________ Activity No: ____________

d. Write your answers using a black-inked ball pen.

3. Submission of Activities.
a. This module belongs to you therefore you can write on the module – academic notes related to the
course, highlight important points.
b. The activity sheets are the only papers to be submitted.
c. Arrange the activities according to its number. Place them in a long white folder.
d. On the long white folder, attach a piece of paper (size: 2in X 4in) and provide your information by
following this format.

Name: ___________________________ Gr. & Section: ________ Track/Strand: __________

Subject: __________________________ Contact No: _________________________________

GOOD LUCK ON YOUR LEARNING JOURNEY!

MODULE 1
EXPLORING DATA
Lesson 1: INTRODUCING STATISTICS
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify questions that could be answered using a
statistical process and describe the activities involved in a statistical process

2
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
 GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST

Lesson Proper 1.1

Compare the following groups of questions. Try to answer mentally if you can.

GROUP 1 GROUP 2

 How old is your teacher?  Do dogs eat more than cats?

 Is the vehicle of the Mayor of our city/ town/  Does it rain more in our country than in
municipality bigger than the vehicle used by Thailand?
the President of the Philippines?  How old are the people residing in your town?
 How many days are there in December?  How many books do my classmates usually
 Does the Principal of the school have a post bring to school?
graduate degree?  What is the proportion of Filipino children
 How much does the Barangay Captain receive aged 0 to 5 years who are underweight or
as allowance? overweight for their age?
 What is the weight of your smallest
classmate?
The first group of questions could be answered by a piece of information which is considered always
true. There is a correct answer which is based on a fact and you don’t need the process of inquiry to answer such
kind of question. For example, there is one and only one correct answer to the first question in Group 1 and that
is your age as of your last birthday or the number of years since your birth year.
On the other hand, in the second group of questions one needs observations or data to be able to respond
to the question. In some questions you need to get the observations or responses of all those concerned to be able
to answer the question. On the third question in the second group, you need to ask all the people in the locality
about their age and among the values you obtained you get a representative value. To answer the first question in
the second group, you need to get the amount of food that all dogs and cats eat to respond to the question.
However, we know that is not feasible to do so. Thus what you can do is get a representative group of dogs and
another representative group for the cats. Then we measure the amount of food each group of animal eats. From
these two sets of values, we could then infer whether dogs do eat more than cats.
So as you can see in the second group of questions you need more information or data to be able to
answer the question. Either you need to get observations from all those concerned or you get representative
groups from which you gather your data. But in both cases, you need data to be able to respond to the question.
Using data to find an answer or a solution to a problem or an inquiry is actually using the statistical process or
doing it with statistics.

I. Statistics as a Tool in Decision – Making.

Statistics is defined as a science that studies data to be able to make a decision. Hence, it is a tool in decision-
making process. Mention that Statistics as a science involves the methods of collecting, processing, summarizing
and analyzing data in order to provide answers or solutions to an inquiry. One also needs to interpret and
communicate the results of the methods identified above to support a decision that one makes when faced with a
problem or an inquiry.
Statistics enable us to:
• characterize persons, objects, situations, and phenomena;
• explain relationships among variables;
• formulate objective assessments and comparisons; and, more importantly
• make evidence-based decisions and predictions.
And to use Statistics in decision-making there is a statistical process to follow which is to be discussed in the
next section.
II. Statistical Process in Solving a Problem
You may go back to one of the questions identified in the second group and use it to discuss the components of a
statistical process. For illustration on how to do it, let us discuss how we could answer the question “Do dogs eat
more than cats?”
As discussed earlier, this question requires you to gather data to generate statistics which will serve as basis in
answering the query.

3
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
• There should be plan or a design on how to collect the data so that the information we get from it is enough
or sufficient for us to minimize any bias in responding to the query. In relation to the query, we said earlier
that we cannot gather the data from all dogs and cats.
• Hence, the plan is to get representative group of dogs and another representative group of cats. These
representative groups were observed for some characteristics like the animal weight, amount of food in
grams eaten per day and breed of the animal.
• Included in the plan are factors like how many dogs and cats are included in the group, how to select those
included in the representative groups and when to observe these animals for their characteristics.
After the data were gathered, we must verify the quality of the data to make a good decision. Data quality check
could be done as we process the data to summarize the information extracted from the data. Then using this
information, one can then make a decision or provide answers to the problem or question at hand.
To summarize, a statistical process in making a decision or providing solutions to a problem include the
following:

 Planning or designing the collection of data to answer statistical questions in a way that maximizes
information content and minimizes bias;

 Collecting the data as required in the plan;

 Verifying the quality of the data after they were collected;

 Summarizing the information extracted from the data; and

 Examining the summary statistics so that insight and meaningful information can be produced to support
decision-making or solutions to the question or problem at hand.
Hence, several activities make up a statistical process which for some the process is simple but for others it
might be a little bit complicated to implement. Also, not all questions or problems could be answered by a
simple statistical process. There are indeed problems that need complex statistical process. However, one can be
assured that logical decisions or solutions could be formulated using a statistical process.

KEY POINTS
 Difference between questions that could be and those that could not answered using Statistics.
 Statistics is a science that studies data.
 There are many uses of Statistics but its main use is in decision-making.
 Logical decisions or solutions to a problem could be attained through a statistical process.

MODULE 1
EXPLORING DATA
Lesson 2: DATA COLLECTION ACTIVITY
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a. Recognize the importance of providing correct information in a data collection activity;
b. Understand the issue of confidentiality of information in a data collection activity;
c. Participate in a data collection activity; and
d. Contextualize data

Lesson Proper 1.2

4
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
 GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
I. Preliminaries in a Data Collection Activity
In data collection activity, specific identities like their names are not required, especially because people have a
right to confidentiality, but there should be a way to develop and maintain a database to check quality of data
provided, and verify from respondent in a data collection activity the data that they provided
In statistical activities, facts are collected from respondents for purposes of getting aggregate information, but
confidentiality should be protected. Agencies mandated to collect data is bound by law to protect the
confidentiality of information provided by respondents. Even market research organizations in the private sector
and individual researchers also guard confidentiality as they merely want to obtain aggregate data. This way,
respondents can be truthful in giving information, and the researcher can give a commitment to respondents that
the data they provide will never be released to anyone in a form that will identify them without their consent.
II. Performing a Data Collection Activity
The government, through the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), conducts censuses to
obtain information about socio-demographic characteristics of the residents of the country.
Census data are used by the government to make plans, such as how many schools and
hospitals to build. Censuses of population and housing are conducted every 10 years on
years ending in zero (e.g., 1990, 2000, 2010) to obtain population counts, and demographic
information about all Filipinos. Mid-decade population censuses have also been conducted
since 1995. Censuses of Agriculture, and of Philippine Business and Industry, are also
conducted by the PSA to obtain information on production and other relevant economic information.
PSA is the government agency mandated to conduct censuses and surveys. Through Republic Act 10625 (also
referred to as The Philippine Statistical Act of 2013), PSA was created from four former government statistical
agencies, namely: National Statistics Office (NSO), National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB), Bureau of
Labor and Employment of Statistics (BLES) and Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS). The other agency
created through RA 10625 is the Philippine Statistical Research and Training Institute (PSRTI) which is
mandated as the research and training arm of the Philippine Statistical System. PSRTI was created from its
forerunner the former Statistical Research and Training Center (SRTC).
III. Contextualization of Data
• DATA – a collection of facts from experiments, observations, sample surveys and censuses, and
administrative reporting systems.
Pay attention to the following collection of numbers, figures, symbols, and words.
COULD THIS BE CONSIDERED AS DATA?

3, red, F, 156, 4, 65, 50, 25, 1, M, 9, 40, 68, blue, 78, 168, 69, 3, F, 6, 9, 45, 50,
20,
200, white, 2, pink, 160, 5, 60, 100, 15, 9, 8, 41, 65, black, 68, 165, 59, 7, 6, 35,
Although the collection is composed of numbers and symbols that could be classified as numeric or non-
numeric, the collection has no meaning or it is not contextualized, hence it cannot be referred to as data.
Data are facts and figures that are presented, collected and analyzed. Data are either numeric or non-
numeric and must be contextualized. To contextualize data, we must identify its six W’s or to put meaning on
the data, we must know the following W’s of the data:
1. Who? Who provided the data?
2. What? What are the information from the respondents and What is the unit of measurement used for each of
the information (if there are any)?
3. When? When was the data collected?
4. Where? Where was the data collected?
5. Why? Why was the data collected?
6. HoW? HoW was the data collected?
Let us take as an illustration the data that you have just collected from the students, and let us put meaning or
contextualize it by responding to the questions with the Ws. It is recommended that the students answer
1. Who? Who provided the data?
 The students in this class provided the data.

2. What? What are the information from the respondents and What is the unit of measurement used for
5
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
 GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
each of the information (if there are any)?
 The information gathered include Class Student Number, Sex, Number of Siblings, Weight, Height,
Age of Mother, Usual Daily Allowance in School, Usual Daily Food Expenditure in School, Usual
Number of Text Messages Sent in a Day, Most Preferred Color, Usual Sleeping Time and Happiness
Index for the Day.
 The units of measurement for the information on Number of Siblings, Weight, Height, Age of Mother,
Usual Daily Allowance in School, Usual Daily Food Expenditure in School, and Usual Number of
Text Messages Sent in a Day are person, kilogram, centimeter, year, pesos, pesos and message,
respectively.

3. When? When was the data collected?

 The data was collected on the first few days of classes for Statistics and Probability.

4. Where? Where was the data collected?

 The data was collected inside our classroom.

5. Why? Why was the data collected?

 As explained earlier, the data will be used in our future lessons in Statistics
and Probability

6. HoW? HoW was the data collected?

 The students provided the data by responding to the Student Information Sheet prepared and
distributed by the teacher for the data collection activity.

Once the data are contextualized, there is now meaning to the collection of number and symbols which may now
look like the following which is just a small SAMPLE of the data collected.
Usual
Number Usual Usual daily
Age of number
Class of Height daily food Most Usual Happiness
Sex Weight mother of text
Student siblings (in allowance expenditure Preferred Sleeping Index for
(in kg) (in messages
Number (in cm) in school in school Color Time the Day
years) sent in a
person) (in pesos) (in pesos) day
1 M 2 60 156 60 200 150 20 RED 23:00 8
2 F 5 63 160 66 300 200 25 PINK 22:00 9
3 F 3 65 165 59 250 50 15 BLUE 20:00 7
4 M 1 55 160 55 200 100 30 BLACK 19:00 6
5 M 0 65 167 45 350 300 35 BLUE 20:00 8
: : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : :

KEY POINTS
 Providing correct information in a government data collection activity is a responsibility of every citizen
in the country.
 Data confidentiality is important in a data collection activity.
 Census is collecting data from all possible respondents.
 Data to be collected must be clarified before the actual data collection.
 Data must be contextualized by answering six W-questions.

MODULE 1
EXPLORING DATA
Lesson 3: BASIC TERMS IN STATISTICS
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a. Define universe and differentiate it with population; and
b. Define and differentiate between qualitative and quantitative variables, and between discrete and
continuous variables (that are quantitative);

Lesson Proper 1.3

I. Definition of Basic Terms

The collection of respondents from whom one obtain the data is called the universe of the study. In our
illustration, the set of students of this Statistics and Probability class is our universe. But a universe is not
necessarily composed of people. Since there are studies where the observations were taken from plants or
animals or even from non-living things like buildings, vehicles, farms, etc. So formally, we define universe as
6
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
 GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
the collection or set of units or entities from whom we got the data. Thus, this set of units answers the first Ws
of data contextualization.

On the other hand, the information we asked from other students are referred to as the variables of the study and
in the data collection activity, we have 12 variables including Class Student Number. A variable is a
characteristic that is observable or measurable in every unit of the universe. From each student of the class, we
got the his/her age, number of siblings, weight, height, age of mother, usual daily allowance in school, usual
daily food expenditure in school, usual number of text messages sent in a day, most preferred color, usual
sleeping time and happiness index for the day. Since these characteristics are observable in each and every
student of the class, then these are
referred to as variables.

The set of all possible values of a variable is referred to as a population. Thus for each variable we observed,
we have a population of values. The number of population in a study will be equal to the number of variables
observed. In the data collection activity we had, there are 12 populations corresponding to 12 variables.

A subgroup of a universe or of a population is a sample. There are several ways to take a sample from a
universe or a population and the way we draw the sample dictates the kind of analysis we do with our data.

II. Broad Classification of Variables

Following up with the concept of variable, usually, a variable takes on several values. But occasionally, a
variable can only assume one value, then it is called a constant. For instance, in a class of fifteen-year olds, the
age in years of students is constant.
• Variables can be broadly classified as either quantitative or qualitative, with the latter further classified
into discrete and continuous types.

7
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
• Qualitative variables express a categorical attribute, such as sex (male or female), religion, marital
status, region of residence, highest educational attainment. Qualitative variables do not strictly take on
numeric values (although we can have numeric codes for them, e.g., for sex variable, 1 and 2 may refer
to male, and female, respectively). Qualitative data answer questions “what kind.” Sometimes, there is a
sense of ordering in qualitative data, e.g., income data grouped into high, middle and low-income status.
Data on sex or religion do not have the sense of ordering, as there is no such thing as a weaker or
stronger sex, and a better or worse religion. Qualitative variables are sometimes referred to as
categorical variables.

• Quantitative (otherwise called numerical) data, whose sizes are meaningful, answer questions such as
“how much” or “how many”. Quantitative variables have actual units of measure. Examples of
quantitative variables include the height, weight, number of registered cars, household size, and total
household expenditures/income of survey respondents. Quantitative data may be further classified into:

a. Discrete data are those data that can be counted, e.g., the number of days for cellphones to fail,
the ages of survey respondents measured to the nearest year, and the number of patients in a
hospital. These data assume only (a finite or infinitely) countable number of values.
b. Continuous data are those that can be measured, e.g. the exact height of a survey respondent
and the exact volume of some liquid substance. The possible values are unaccountably infinite.

Special Note:
For quantitative data, arithmetical operations have some physical interpretation. One can add 301 and 302 if
these have quantitative meanings, but if, these numbers refer to room numbers, then adding these numbers does
not make any sense. Even though a variable may take numerical values, it does not make the corresponding
variable quantitative! The issue is whether performing arithmetical operations on these data would make any
sense. It would certainly not make sense to sum two zip codes or multiply two room numbers.

KEY POINTS
 A universe is a collection of units from which the data were gathered.
 A variable is a characteristic we observed or measured from every element of the universe.
 A population is a set of all possible values of a variable.
 A sample is a subgroup of a universe or a population.
 In a study there is only one universe but could have several populations.
 Variables could be classified as qualitative or quantitative, and the latter could be further classified as
discrete or continuous.

MODULE 1
EXPLORING DATA
Lesson 4: LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify and differentiate the different levels of
measurement and methods of data collection
Lesson Proper 1.4
Consider the following statement:
“Students who eat a healthy breakfast will do best on a quiz, students who eat an unhealthy breakfast will get an
average performance, and students who do not eat anything for breakfast will do the worst on a quiz”
We could apply a statistical process to investigate on the validity of this statement by way of:
1. Plan or design the collection of data to verify the validity of the statement in a way that maximizes
information content and minimizes bias;
2. Collect the data as required in the plan;
3. Verify the quality of the data after it was collected;
4. Summarize the information extracted from the data; and
5. Examine the summary statistics so that insight and meaningful information can be produced to support
your decision whether to believe or not the given statement.

8
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
 GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST

Let us discuss in detail the first step. In planning or designing the data collection activity, we could consider the
set of all the students in the class as our universe. Then let us identify the variables we need to observe or
measure to verify the validity of the statement.

• As we describe the data collection process to verify the validity of the statement, there is also a need to
include the levels of measurement for the variables of interest.

I. Levels of Measurement
There are four levels of measurement of variables: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. These are hierarchical in
nature and are described as follows:

 Nominal level of measurement arises when we have variables that are categorical and non- numeric or
where the numbers have no sense of ordering. As an example, consider the numbers on the uniforms of
basketball players. Is the player wearing a number 7 a worse player than the player wearing number 10?
Maybe, or maybe not, but the number on the uniform does not have anything to do with their performance.
The numbers on the uniform merely help identify the basketball player. Other examples of the variables
measured at the nominal level include sex, marital status, and religious affiliation.

 Ordinal level also deals with categorical variables like the nominal level, but in this level ordering is
important, that is the values of the variable could be ranked. For the study on the validity of the statement
regarding effect of breakfast on school performance, students who had healthy breakfast can be coded 1,
those who had unhealthy breakfast as 2 while those who had no breakfast at all as 3. Using the codes the
responses could be ranked. Thus, the students who had a healthy breakfast are ranked first while those who
had no breakfast at all are ranked last in terms of having a healthy breakfast. The numerical codes here have
a meaningful sense of ordering, unlike basketball player uniforms, the numerical codes suggest that one
student is having a healthier breakfast than another student. Other examples of the ordinal scale include
socio economic status (A to E, where A is wealthy, E is poor), difficulty of questions in an exam (easy,
medium difficult), rank in a contest (first place, second place, etc.), and perceptions in Likert scales.
Special Note: While there is a sense or ordering, there is no zero point in an ordinal scale. In addition, there is
no way to find out how much “distance” there is between one category and another. In a scale from 1 to 10, the
difference between 7 and 8 may not be the same difference between 1 and 2.

 Interval level tells us that one unit differs by a certain amount of degree from another unit. Knowing how
much one unit differs from another is an additional property of the interval level on top of having the
properties possessed by the ordinal level. When measuring temperature in Celsius, a 10 degree difference
has the same meaning anywhere along the scale – the difference between 10 and 20 degree Celsius is the
same as between 80 and 90 centigrade. But, we cannot say that 80 degrees Celsius is twice as hot as 40
degrees Celsius since there is no true zero, but only an arbitrary zero point. A measurement of 0 degrees
Celsius does not reflect a true "lack of temperature." Thus, Celsius scale is in interval level. Other example
of a variable measure at the interval is the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of a person. We can tell not only which
person ranks higher in IQ but also how much higher he or she ranks with another, but zero IQ does not mean
no intelligence.

Special Note: Interval level allows addition and subtraction operations, but it does not possess an absolute zero.
Zero is arbitrary as it does not mean the value does not exist. Zero only represents an additional measurement
point.

 Ratio level also tells us that one unit has so many times as much of the property as does another unit. The
ratio level possesses a meaningful (unique and non-arbitrary) absolute, fixed zero point and allows all
arithmetic operations. The existence of the zero point is the only difference between ratio and interval level
of measurement. Examples of the ratio scale include mass, heights, weights, energy and electric charge.
With mass as an example, the difference between 120 grams and 135 grams is 15 grams, and this is the same
difference between 380 grams and 395 grams. The level at any given point is constant, and a measurement
of 0 reflects a complete lack of mass. Amount of money is also at the ratio level. We can say that 2000 pesos
is twice more than 1,000 pesos. In addition, money has a true zero point: if you have zero money, this
implies the absence of money.

In summary, we have the following levels of measurement:

9
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
 GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
Level Property Basic Empirical Operation
Nominal No order, distance, or origin Determination of equivalence
Has order but no distance or
Ordinal Determination of greater or lesser values
unique origin
Both with order and distance but no Determination of equality of intervals or
Interval
unique origin difference
Has order, distance and unique Determination of equality of ratios or
Ratio
origin means

The levels of measurement depend mainly on the method of measurement, not on the property measured. The
weight of primary school students measured in kilograms has a ratio level, but the students can be categorized
into overweight, normal, underweight, and in which case, the weight is then measured in an ordinal level. Also,
many levels are only interval because their zero point is arbitrarily chosen.

II. Methods of Data Collection

Variables were observed or measured using any of the three methods of data collection, namely: objective,
subjective and use of existing records. The objective and subjective methods obtained the data directly from the
source. The former uses any or combination of the five senses (sense of sight, touch, hearing, taste and smell) to
measure the variable while the latter obtains data by getting responses through a questionnaire. The resulting
data from these two methods of data collection is referred to as primary data. The data gathered in Lesson 2 are
primary data and were obtained using the subjective method.

On the other hand, secondary data are obtained through the use of existing records or data collected by other
entities for certain purposes. For example, when we use data gathered by the Philippine Statistics Authority, we
are using secondary data and the method we employ to get the data is the use of existing records. Other data
sources include administrative records, news articles, internet, and the like. When we use existing data we must
be confident of the quality of the data we are using by knowing how the data were gathered. Also, we must
remember to request permission and acknowledge the source of the data when using data gathered by other
agency or people.

KEY POINTS
 Four levels of measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
 Knowing what level the variable was measured or observed will guide us to know the type of analysis to
apply.
 Three methods of data collection include objective, subjective and use of existing records.
 Using the data collection method as basis, data can be classified as either primary or secondary data.
MODULE 1
EXPLORING DATA
Lesson 5: DATA PRESENTATION
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify and differentiate the different levels of
measurement and methods of data collection
Lesson Proper 1.5
I. Methods of Data Presentation
In general there are three methods to present data. Two or all of these three methods could be used at the same
time to present appropriately the information from the data set. These methods include the (1) textual or
narrative; (2) tabular; and (3) graphical method of presentation.

In presenting the data in textual or paragraph or narrative form, one describes the data by enumerating some of
the highlights of the data set like giving the highest, lowest or the average values. In case there are only few
observations, say less than ten observations, the values could be enumerated if there is a need to do so. An
example of which is shown below:
The country’s poverty incidence among families as reported by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA),
the agency mandated to release official poverty statistics, decreases from 21% in 2006 down to 19.7%
in 2012. For 2012, the regional estimates released by PSA indicate that the Autonomous Region of
Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) is the poorest region with poverty incidence among families estimated at
48.7%. The region with the smallest estimated poverty incidence among families at 2.6% is the National
Capital Region (NCR).

10
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
Data could also be summarized or presented using tables. The tabular method of presentation is applicable for
large data sets. Trends could easily be seen in this kind of presentation. However, there is a loss of information
when using such kind of presentation. The frequency distribution table is the usual tabular form of presenting the
distribution of the data. The following are the common parts of a statistical table:
a. Table title includes the number and a short description of what is found inside the table.
b. Column header provides the label of what is being presented in a column.
c. Row header provides the label of what is being presented in a row.
d. Body are the information in the cell intersecting the row and the column.
In general, a table should have at least three rows and/or three columns. However, too many information to
convey in a table is also not advisable. Tables are usually used in written technical reports and in oral
presentation. Table 5.1 is an example of presenting data in tabular form. This example was taken from 2015
Philippine Statistics in Brief, a regular publication of the PSA which is also the basis for the example of the
textual presentation given above.

Table 5.1 Regional estimates of poverty incidence among families based on the Family Income and
Expenditures Survey conducted on the same year of reporting.
Region 2006 2009 2012
NCR 2.9 2.4 2.6
CAR 21.1 19.2 17.5
I 19.9 16.8 14.0
II 21.7 20.2 17.0
III 10.3 10.7 10.1
IV A 7.8 8.8 8.3
IV B 32.4 27.2 23.6
V 35.4 35.3 32.3
VI 22.7 23.6 22.8
VII 30.7 26.0 25.7
VIII 33.7 34.5 37.4
IX 40.0 39.5 33.7
X 32.1 33.3 32.8
XI 25.4 25.5 25.0
XII 31.2 30.8 37.1
Caraga 41.7 46.0 31.9
ARMM 40.5 39.9 48.7

Graphical presentation on the other hand, is a visual presentation of the data. Graphs are commonly used in
oral presentation. There are several forms of graphs to use like the pie chart, pictograph, bar graph, line
graph, histogram and box-plot. Which form to use depends on what information is to be relayed. For
example, trends across time are easily seen using a line graph. However, values of variables in nominal or
ordinal levels of measurement should not be presented using line graph. Rather a bar graph is more
appropriate to use. A graphical presentation in the form of vertical bar graph of the 2012 regional estimates
of poverty incidence among families is shown below:
Poverty Incidence Among
Families in Percent

VI
VII

IX
V

VIII
IV B
I

III

XII
IV A

X
NCR
CAR

II

XI

Figure 5.1 2012 Regional poverty incidence among families (2012 FIES).

11
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
 GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
II. The Frequency Distribution Table and Histogram
A special type of tabular and graphical presentation is the frequency distribution table (FDT) and its
corresponding histogram. Specifically, these are used to depict the distribution of the data. Most of the time,
these are used in technical reports.
An FDT is a presentation containing non-overlapping categories or classes of a variable and the frequencies or
counts of the observations falling into the categories or classes. There are two types of FDT according to the
type of data being organized: a qualitative FDT or a quantitative FDT. For a qualitative FDT, the non-
overlapping categories of the variable are identified, and frequencies, as well as the percentages of observations
falling into the categories, are computed. On the other hand, for a quantitative FDT, there are also of two types:
ungrouped and grouped. Ungrouped FDT is constructed when there are only a few observations or if the data set
contains only few possible values. On the other hand, grouped FDT is constructed when there is a large number
of observations and when the data set involves many possible values. The distinct values are grouped into class
intervals. The creation of columns for a grouped FDT follows a set of guidelines. One such procedure is
described in the following steps:

Steps in the construction of a grouped FDT

1. Identify the largest data value or the maximum (MAX ) and smallest data value or the minimum (MIN )
from the data set and compute the range, R. The range is the difference between the largest and smallest
value, i.e. R=MAX – MIN .

2. Determine the number of classes, k using k =¿ N where N is the total number of observations in the
data set. Round-off k to the nearest whole number. It should be noted that the computed k might not be equal
to the actual number of classes constructed in an FDT.

3. Calculate the class ¿ c , using c=R /k . Round off c to the nearest value with precision the same as that with
the raw data.

4. Construct the classes or the class intervals. A class interval is defined by a lower limit (¿) and an upper limit
(UL). The LL of the lowest class is usually the MIN of the data set. The LL’s of the succeeding classes are
then obtained by adding c to the LL of the preceding classes. The UL of the lowest class is obtained by

subtracting one unit of measure ( )

1
10 x
, where x is the minimum number of decimal places observed from

the raw data. From the ¿ of the next class. The UL ’ sof the succeeding classes are then obtained by adding c
to the UL of the preceding classes. The lowest class should contain the MIN , while the highest class should
contain the MAX .
5. Tally the data the classes constructed in Step 4 to obtain the frequency of each class. Each observation must
fall in one and only one class.
6. Add (if needed) the following distributional characteristics:

a. True Class Boundaries(TCB ). The TCBs reflect the continuous property of a continuous data. It
is defined by a lower TCB (LTCB) and an upper TCB (UTCB). These are obtained by taking the
midpoints of the gaps between classes or by using the following formulas:
LTCB=¿ – 0.5( one unit of measure)∧UTCB=UL+ 0.5(one unit of measure).
b. Class Mark (CM ). The CM is the midpoint of a class and is obtained by taking the average of
the lower and upper TCB’s, i.e. CM =( LTCB+ UTCB) /2.

c. Relative Frequency (RF ). The RF refers to the frequency of the class as a fraction of the total
frequency, i.e. RF=frequency /N . RF can be computed for both qualitative and quantitative
data. RF can also be expressed in percent.

d. Cumulative Frequency (CF ) . The CF refers to the total number of observations greater than or
equal to the ¿ of the class (¿ CF) or the total number of observations less than or equal to the
UL of the class (¿ CF) .

e. Relative Cumulative Frequency(RCF ). RCF refers to the fraction of the total number of
observations greater than or equal to the ¿ of the class (¿ RCF ) or the fraction of the total
number of observations less than or equal to the ULof the class (¿ RCF ). Both the ¿ RCF and
¿ RCF can also be expressed in percent.
12
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]
GRADE: 11 SEMESTER: 2nd
SUBJECT TITLE: MATH2 QUARTER: 1ST
The histogram is a graphical presentation of the frequency distribution table in the form of a vertical bar graph.
There are several forms of the histogram and the most common form has the frequency on its vertical axis while
the true class boundaries in the horizontal axis.
As an example, the FDT and its corresponding histogram of the 2012 estimated poverty incidences of 144
municipalities and cities of Region VIII are shown below.

78
80
Poverty Incidence Frequency
59
(%)
60

Frequency
00.000 - 20.015 3
40
20.015 - 40.015 59
40.015 - 60.015 78
20
60.015 - 80.015 4 3 4 0
80.015 - 100.00 0
0
True Class Boundaries

KEY POINTS
 Three methods of data presentation: textual, tabular and graphical
 Two or all the methods could be combined to fully describe the data at hand.
 Distribution of data is presented using frequency distribution table and histogram.

13
Statistics and Probability DARYL JOANE P. CORONEL
MATH 2 0933 486 3879| [email protected]