Causal sets

The causal sets program is an approach to

quantum gravity. Its founding principles
are that spacetime is fundamentally
discrete (a collection of discrete
spacetime points, called the elements of
the causal set) and that spacetime events
are related by a partial order. This partial
order has the physical meaning of the
causality relations between spacetime
events.
The program is based on a theorem[1] by
David Malament that states that if there is
a bijective map between two past and
future distinguishing space times that
preserves their causal structure then the
map is a conformal isomorphism. The
conformal factor that is left undetermined
is related to the volume of regions in the
spacetime. This volume factor can be
recovered by specifying a volume element
for each space time point. The volume of a
space time region could then be found by
counting the number of points in that
region.
Causal sets was initiated by Rafael Sorkin
who continues to be the main proponent
of the program. He has coined the slogan
"Order + Number = Geometry" to
characterize the above argument. The
program provides a theory in which space
time is fundamentally discrete while
retaining local Lorentz invariance.

Definition
A causal set (or causet) is a set with a
partial order relation that is

Reflexive: For all , we have

.
 Antisymmetric: For all , we
have and implies .
Transitive: For all , we have
and implies .
Locally finite: For all , we have
is a finite set.

We'll write if and .

The set represents the set of spacetime

events and the order relation represents
the causal relationship between events
(see causal structure for the analogous
idea in a Lorentzian manifold).

Although this definition uses the reflexive

convention we could have chosen the
irreflexive convention in which the order
relation is irreflexive and asymmetric.

The causal relation of a Lorentzian

manifold (without closed causal curves)
satisfies the first three conditions. It is the
local finiteness condition that introduces
spacetime discreteness.

Comparison to the
continuum
Given a causal set we may ask whether it
can be embedded into a Lorentzian
manifold. An embedding would be a map
taking elements of the causal set into
points in the manifold such that the order
relation of the causal set matches the
causal ordering of the manifold. A further
criterion is needed however before the
embedding is suitable. If, on average, the
number of causal set elements mapped
into a region of the manifold is
proportional to the volume of the region
then the embedding is said to be faithful.
In this case we can consider the causal
set to be 'manifold-like'.

A central conjecture of the causal set

program, called the Hauptvermutung
('fundamental conjecture'), now refuted, is
that the same causal set cannot be
faithfully embedded into two spacetimes
that are not similar on large scales.

It is difficult to define this conjecture

precisely because it is difficult to decide
when two spacetimes are 'similar on large
scales'.

Modelling spacetime as a causal set

would require us to restrict attention to
those causal sets that are 'manifold-like'.
Given a causal set this is a difficult
property to determine.

Regardless, the Hauptvermutung has now

been shown to be false. [citation???]
Sprinkling

A plot of 1000 sprinkled points in 1+1 dimensions

The difficulty of determining whether a

causal set can be embedded into a
manifold can be approached from the
other direction. We can create a causal set
by sprinkling points into a Lorentzian
manifold. By sprinkling points in
proportion to the volume of the spacetime
regions and using the causal order
relations in the manifold to induce order
relations between the sprinkled points, we
can produce a causal set that (by
construction) can be faithfully embedded
into the manifold.

To maintain Lorentz invariance this

sprinkling of points must be done
randomly using a Poisson process. Thus
the probability of sprinkling points into a
region of volume is

where is the density of the sprinkling.

Sprinkling points as a regular lattice would
not keep the number of points
proportional to the region volume.

Geometry
Some geometrical constructions in
manifolds carry over to causal sets. When
defining these we must remember to rely
only on the causal set itself, not on any
background spacetime into which it might
be embedded. For an overview of these
constructions, see.[2]
Geodesics

A plot of geodesics between two points in a 180-point causal set made by sprinkling into 1+1 dimensions

A link in a causal set is a pair of elements

such that but with no
such that .

A chain is a sequence of elements

such that for
. The length of a chain
is . If every in the chain form a
link, then the chain is called a path.

We can use this to define the notion of a

geodesic between two causal set
elements, provided they are order
comparable, that is, causally connected
(physically, this means they are time-like).
A geodesic between two elements
is a chain consisting only of
links such that

1. and
2. The length of the chain, , is maximal
over all chains from to .
In general there can be more than one
geodesic between two comparable
elements.

Myrheim[3] first suggested that the length

of such a geodesic should be directly
proportional to the proper time along a
timelike geodesic joining the two
spacetime points. Tests of this conjecture
have been made using causal sets
generated from sprinklings into flat
spacetimes. The proportionality has been
shown to hold and is conjectured to hold
for sprinklings in curved spacetimes too.
Dimension estimators

Much work has been done in estimating

the manifold dimension of a causal set.
This involves algorithms using the causal
set aiming to give the dimension of the
manifold into which it can be faithfully
embedded. The algorithms developed so
far are based on finding the dimension of
a Minkowski spacetime into which the
causal set can be faithfully embedded.

Myrheim–Meyer dimension

This approach relies on estimating the

number of -length chains present in a
sprinkling into -dimensional Minkowski
spacetime. Counting the number of -
length chains in the causal set then allows
an estimate for to be made.

Midpoint-scaling dimension

This approach relies on the relationship

between the proper time between two
points in Minkowski spacetime and the
volume of the spacetime interval between
them. By computing the maximal chain
length (to estimate the proper time)
between two points and and counting
the number of elements such that
(to estimate the volume of the
spacetime interval) the dimension of the
spacetime can be calculated.
These estimators should give the correct
dimension for causal sets generated by
high-density sprinklings into -
dimensional Minkowski spacetime. Tests
in conformally-flat spacetimes[4] have
shown these two methods to be accurate.

Dynamics
An ongoing task is to develop the correct
dynamics for causal sets. These would
provide a set of rules that determine which
causal sets correspond to physically
realistic spacetimes. The most popular
approach to developing causal set
dynamics is based on the sum-over-
histories version of quantum mechanics.
This approach would perform a "sum-over-
causal sets" by growing a causal set one
element at a time. Elements would be
added according to quantum mechanical
rules and interference would ensure a
large manifold-like spacetime would
dominate the contributions. The best
model for dynamics at the moment is a
classical model in which elements are
added according to probabilities. This
model, due to David Rideout and Rafael
Sorkin, is known as classical sequential
growth (CSG) dynamics.[5] The classical
sequential growth model is a way to
generate causal sets by adding new
elements one after another. Rules for how
new elements are added are specified and,
depending on the parameters in the model,
different causal sets result.

In analogy to the path integral formulation

of quantum mechanics, one approach to
developing a quantum dynamics for
causal sets has been to apply an action
principle in the sum-over-causal sets
approach. Sorkin has proposed a discrete
analogue for the d'Alembertian, which can
in turn be used to define the Ricci
curvature scalar and thereby the
Benincasa–Dowker action on a causal
set.[6][7] Monte-Carlo simulations have
provided evidence for a continuum phase
in 2D using the Benincasa–Dowker
action.[8]

See also
Causal dynamical triangulation (CDT)
Causal structure
General relativity
Order theory

References
1. Malament, David B. (July 1977). "The class
of continuous timelike curves determines
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2. Brightwell, Graham; Gregory, Ruth (21

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ch//archive/electronic/kek-scan//19780814
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4. Reid, David D. (30 January 2003). "Manifold

dimension of a causal set: Tests in
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5. Rideout, D. P.; Sorkin, R. D. (2000).

"Classical sequential growth dynamics for
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gr-qc/0703099) .
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continuum in 2D causal set quantum
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Further reading
Introduction and reviews
L. Bombelli. Causal Set reference page (http://
www.phy.olemiss.edu/~luca/Topics/st/causal
_sets.html) (Overview)
L. Bombelli. Causal Sets: Overview and Status
(http://www.gravity.psu.edu/events/conferenc
es/Quantum_GravityIII/proceedings.shtml) ,
Talk given at Quantum Gravity in the
Americas III, August 24–26, 2006;
(Introduction, Overview)
F. Dowker, Causal sets and the deep structure
of spacetime, arXiv:gr-qc/0508109;
(Introduction)
F. Dowker, Causal sets as discrete spacetime
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17445760500356
833) , Contemporary Physics, vol. 47, Issue 1,
p. 1-9; (Overview, Introduction)
F. Dowker, Introduction to causal sets and
their phenomenology, Gen Relativ Gravit
(2013) 45:1651–1667 doi:10.1007/s10714-
013-1569-y (Overview of recent research)
J. Henson, The causal set approach to
quantum gravity, arXiv:gr-qc/0601121;
(Introduction, Overview)
D.D. Reid; Introduction to causal sets: an
alternate view of spacetime structure;
Canadian Journal of Physics 79, 1-16 (2001);
arXiv:gr-qc/9909075; (General);
R.D. Sorkin; Causal set glossary and
bibliography (http://www.maths.qmw.ac.uk/~p
jc/csgnotes/) (20 November 2001);
(Glossary and bibliography);
R.D. Sorkin, Causal Sets: Discrete Gravity
(Notes for the Valdivia Summer School), In
Proceedings of the Valdivia Summer School,
edited by A. Gomberoff and D. Marolf;
arXiv:gr-qc/0309009; (Introduction, Glossary)
Foundations
L. Bombelli, J. Lee, D. Meyer, R.D. Sorkin,
Spacetime as a causal set (http://prola.aps.or
g/abstract/PRL/v59/i5/p521_1) , Phys. Rev.
Lett. 59:521-524 (1987) ; (Introduction,
Foundations)
C. Moore, Comment on "Space-time as a
causal set" (http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v
60/p655) , Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 655 (1988);
(Foundations)
L. Bombelli, J. Lee, D. Meyer, R.D. Sorkin,
Bombelli et al. Reply (http://link.aps.org/abstra
ct/PRL/v60/p656) , Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 656
(1988); (Foundations)
A. Einstein, Letter to H.S. Joachim, August 14,
1954; Item 13-453 cited in J.
Stachel,“Einstein and the Quantum: Fifty
Years of Struggle”, in From Quarks to
Quasars, Philosophical Problems of Modern
Physics, edited by R.G. Colodny (U.
Pittsburgh Press, 1986), pages 380-381;
(Historical)
D. Finkelstein, Space-time code (http://prola.a
ps.org/abstract/PR/v184/i5/p1261_1) , Phys.
Rev. 184:1261 (1969); (Foundations)
D. Finkelstein, "Superconducting" Causal Nets
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00669395) ,
Int. J. Th. Phys 27:473(1988); (Foundations)
G. Hemion, A quantum theory of space and
time (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0070868
2) ; Found. Phys. 10 (1980), p. 819 (Similar
proposal)
J. Myrheim, Statistical geometry (http://doc.c
ern.ch//archive/electronic/kek-scan//1978081
43.pdf) , CERN preprint TH-2538 (1978);
(Foundations, Historical)
B. Riemann, Über die Hypothesen, welche der
Geometrie zu Grunde liegen (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20160318034045/http://www.mat
hs.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Riemann/Geo
m/) , The Collected Works of B. Riemann
(Dover NY 1953); ; (Historical)
R.D. Sorkin; A Finitary Substitute for
Continuous Topology (https://dx.doi.org/10.10
07/BF00673986) , Int. J. Theor. Phys. 30 7:
923-947 (1991); (Foundational)
R.D. Sorkin, Does a Discrete Order underly
Spacetime and its Metric?, Proceedings of the
Third Canadian Conference on General
Relativity and Relativistic Astrophysics,
(Victoria, Canada, May, 1989), edited by A.
Coley, F. Cooperstock, B.Tupper, pp. 82–86,
(World Scientific, 1990); (Introduction)
R.D. Sorkin, First Steps with Causal Sets (htt
p://physics.syr.edu/~sorkin/some.papers/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130
930154307/http://physics.syr.edu/~sorkin/so
me.papers/) 2013-09-30 at the Wayback
Machine, General Relativity and Gravitational
Physics, (Proceedings of the Ninth Italian
Conference of the same name, held Capri,
Italy, September, 1990), 68-90, (World
Scientific, Singapore), (1991), R. Cianci, R. de
Ritis, M. Francaviglia, G. Marmo, C. Rubano,
P. Scudellaro (eds.); (Introduction)
R.D. Sorkin, Spacetime and Causal Sets (htt
p://physics.syr.edu/~sorkin/some.papers/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130
930154307/http://physics.syr.edu/~sorkin/so
me.papers/) 2013-09-30 at the Wayback
Machine, Relativity and Gravitation: Classical
and Quantum, (Proceedings of the SILARG
VII Conference, held Cocoyoc, Mexico,
December, 1990), pages 150-173, (World
Scientific, Singapore, 1991), J.C. D’Olivo, E.
Nahmad-Achar, M.Rosenbaum, M.P. Ryan,
L.F. Urrutia and F. Zertuche (eds.);
(Introduction)
R.D. Sorkin, Forks in the Road, on the Way to
Quantum Gravity, Talk given at the conference
entitled “Directions in General Relativity”, held
at College Park, Maryland, May, 1993, Int. J.
Th. Phys. 36: 2759–2781 (1997); arXiv:gr-
qc/9706002; (Philosophical, Introduction)
G.'t Hooft, Quantum gravity: a fundamental
problem and some radical ideas, Recent
Developments in Gravitation (Proceedings of
the 1978 Cargese Summer Institute) edited
by M. Levy and S. Deser (Plenum, 1979);
(Introduction, Foundations, Historical)
E.C. Zeeman, Causality Implies the Lorentz
Group (https://archive.today/2013022406464
0/http://link.aip.org/link/?JMAPAQ/5/490/1) ,
J. Math. Phys. 5: 490-493; (Historical,
Foundations)
PhD theses
L. Bombelli, Space-time as a Causal Set (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110718134535/htt
p://www.phy.olemiss.edu/~luca/Papers/PhD.p
df) , PhD thesis (Syracuse University, 1987);
(Introduction, Kinematics)
A.R. Daughton; The Recovery of Locality for
Causal Sets and Related Topics; PhD thesis
(Syracuse University, 1993); (Locality)
D. Dou, Causal Sets, a Possible Interpretation
for the Black Hole Entropy, and Related Topics;
PhD thesis (SISSA, Trieste, 1999); arXiv:gr-
qc/0106024 (Black hole entropy)
S. Johnston, Quantum Fields on Causal Sets,
PhD Thesis (Imperial College London, 2010)
arXiv:1010.5514 (Quantum Field Theory)
D.A. Meyer, The Dimension of Causal Sets (htt
p://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/14328) , PhD thesis
(M.I.T., 1988); (Dimension theory)
L. Philpott, Causal Set Phenomenology, PhD
Thesis (Imperial College London, 2010);
arXiv:1009.1593 (Swerves, Phenomenology)
D.P. Rideout; Dynamics of Causal Sets; PhD
Thesis (Syracuse University 2001); arXiv:gr-
qc/0212064; (Cosmology, Dynamics)
R.B. Salgado; Toward a Quantum Dynamics
for Causal Sets (https://web.archive.org/web/
20120227062902/http://physics.syr.edu/~sal
gado/thesis/Salgado-dissertation-proquest.pd
f) ; PhD Thesis (Syracuse University 2008);
(Scalar field theory, Quantum Measure
Theory)
R. Sverdlov; Quantum Field Theory and Gravity
in Causal Sets; PhD Thesis (University of
Michigan 2009); arXiv: 0905.2263 (Quantum
Field Theory and Gravity)
Talks
Joe Henson, An Invitation to Causal Sets (htt
p://pirsa.org/10090092/) ; Talk given at
Perimeter Institute, 14 September 2010,
Waterloo ON (Introduction)
F. Dowker, Causal Set Phenomenology (http://l
oops05.aei.mpg.de/index_files/abstract_dowk
er.html) ; Talk given at Loops 05, 10–14
October 2005, Potsdam, Max Planck Institute
for Gravitational Physics (Swerves)
S. Johnston; Particle Propagators from
Discrete Spacetime (http://pirsa.org/0804004
3/) ; Talk given at Perimeter Institute 14 April
2008 (Quantum field theory)
D.A. Meyer; Talk given at the 1997 Santa Fe
workshop: Causal Sets and Feynman
diagrams (https://web.archive.org/web/20090
114214257/http://t8web.lanl.gov/people/emi
l/Slides/sf97talks.html) ; Presented at "New
Directions in Simplicial Quantum Gravity"
July 28 - August 8, 1997; (Feynman diagrams,
Quantum Dynamics)
D.P. Rideout; Spatial Hypersurfaces in Causal
Set Cosmology (http://loops05.aei.mpg.de/ind
ex_files/abstract_rideout.html) ; Talk given at
Loops 05, 10–14 October 2005, Potsdam,
Max Planck Institute for Gravitational
Physics (Spatial hyper-surfaces, Dynamics)
J. Scargle, Testing Quantum Gravity Theories
with GLAST (http://scipp.ucsc.edu/seminars/e
xperimental/archive_sq07/scargle_4-24-07.pp
t) ; Talk given at Santa Cruz Institute for
Particle Physics, April 24, 2007. (Lorentz
invariance, Phenomenology)
R.D. Sorkin; Two Talks given at the 1997
Santa Fe workshop: A Review of the Causal
Set Approach to Quantum Gravity (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20090114214257/http://t8
web.lanl.gov/people/emil/Slides/sf97talks.ht
ml) and '; Presented at ”New Directions in
Simplicial Quantum Gravity” July 28 -
August 8, 1997; ;;

R.D. Sorkin; Does quantum gravity give rise to

an observable nonlocality? (http://pirsa.org/07
010001) ; Talk given at Perimeter Institute
17/01/2007 (d'Alembertian, Locality)
R.D. Sorkin, Some Insights for Quantum
Gravity Derived from Work on Causal Sets (htt
p://loops05.aei.mpg.de/index_files/abstract_s
orkin.html) ; Talk given at Loops 05, 10–14
October 2005, Potsdam, Max Planck Institute
for Gravitational Physics (Overview)
R.D. Sorkin Is a past-finite causal order the
inner basis of spacetime? (http://pirsa.org/05
090001) Talk given at Perimeter Institute
07/09/2005
S. Surya, Recovering spacetime topology from
a causet (http://loops05.aei.mpg.de/index_file
s/abstract_surya.html) ; Talk given at Loops
05, 10–14 October 2005, Potsdam, Max
Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics
(Topology)
R. Sverdlov; Introduction of bosonic fields into
causal set theory (http://pirsa.org/0802004
3/) ; Talk given at Perimeter Institute
19/02/2008 (Quantum field theory)
Manifoldness
L. Bombelli, D.A. Meyer; The origin of
Lorentzian geometry (https://dx.doi.org/10.10
16/0375-9601(89)90474-X) ; Phys. Lett. A
141:226-228 (1989); (Manifoldness)
L. Bombelli, R.D. Sorkin, When are Two
Lorentzian Metrics close?, General Relativity
and Gravitation, proceedings of the 12th
International Conference on General
Relativity and Gravitation, held July 2–8,
1989, in Boulder, Colorado, USA, under the
auspices of the International Society on
General Relativity and Gravitation, 1989,
p. 220; (Closeness of Lorentzian manifolds)
L. Bombelli, Causal sets and the closeness of
Lorentzian manifolds, Relativity in General:
proceedings of the Relativity Meeting "93,
held September 7–10, 1993, in Salas,
Asturias, Spain. Edited by J. Diaz Alonso, M.
Lorente Paramo. ISBN 2-86332-168-4.
Published by Editions Frontieres, 91192 Gif-
sur-Yvette Cedex, France, 1994, p. 249;
(Closeness of Lorentzian manifolds)
L. Bombelli, Statistical Lorentzian geometry
and the closeness of Lorentzian manifolds, J.
Math. Phys.41:6944-6958 (2000); arXiv:gr-
qc/0002053 (Closeness of Lorentzian
manifolds, Manifoldness)
A.R. Daughton, An investigation of the
symmetric case of when causal sets can
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S. Major, D.P. Rideout, S. Surya, On Recovering
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J.Math.Phys.48:032501,2007; arXiv:gr-
qc/0604124 (Continuum Topology)
S. Major, D.P. Rideout, S. Surya; Spatial
Hypersurfaces in Causal Set Cosmology;
Class. Quantum Grav. 23 (2006) 4743-4752;
arXiv:gr-qc/0506133v2; (Observables,
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S. Major, D.P. Rideout, S. Surya, Stable
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(Continuum topology and homology)
D.A. Meyer, The Dimension of Causal Sets I:
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D.A. Meyer, The Dimension of Causal Sets II:
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S. Surya, Causal Set Topology;
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Geometry
E. Bachmat; Discrete spacetime and its
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S.W. Hawking, A.R. King, P.J. McCarthy; A
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A.V. Levichev; Prescribing the conformal
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Malament, David B. (July 1977). "The class of
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Bibcode:1977JMP....18.1399M (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JMP....18.1399
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D.P. Rideout, P. Wallden; Spacelike distance
from discrete causal order; arXiv:0810.1768
(Spatial distances)
Cosmological constant prediction
M. Ahmed, S. Dodelson, P.B. Greene, R.D.
Sorkin, Everpresent lambda; Phys. Rev. D69,
103523, (2004) arXiv:astro-ph/0209274v1 ;
(Cosmological Constant)
Y. Jack Ng and H. van Dam, A small but
nonzero cosmological constant; Int. J. Mod.
Phys D. 10 : 49 (2001) arXiv:hep-
th/9911102v3; (PreObservation
Cosmological Constant)
Y. Kuznetsov, On cosmological constant in
Causal Set theory; arXiv:0706.0041
R.D. Sorkin, A Modified Sum-Over-Histories for
Gravity; reported in Highlights in gravitation
and cosmology: Proceedings of the
International Conference on Gravitation and
Cosmology, Goa, India, 14–19 December
1987, edited by B. R. Iyer, Ajit Kembhavi,
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and L. Smolin: “Workshop on quantum
gravity and new directions”, pp 183–191
(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1988); (PreObservation Cosmological
Constant)
R.D. Sorkin; On the Role of Time in the Sum-
over-histories Framework for Gravity (https://d
x.doi.org/10.1007/BF00670514) , paper
presented to the conference on The History
of Modern Gauge Theories, held Logan, Utah,
July 1987; Int. J. Theor. Phys. 33 : 523-534
(1994); (PreObservation Cosmological
Constant)
R.D. Sorkin, First Steps with Causal Sets (htt
p://physics.syr.edu/~sorkin/some.papers/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130
930154307/http://physics.syr.edu/~sorkin/so
me.papers/) 2013-09-30 at the Wayback
Machine, in R. Cianci, R. de Ritis, M.
Francaviglia, G. Marmo, C. Rubano, P.
Scudellaro (eds.), General Relativity and
Gravitational Physics (Proceedings of the
Ninth Italian Conference of the same name,
held Capri, Italy, September, 1990), pp. 68–90
(World Scientific, Singapore, 1991);
(PreObservation Cosmological Constant)
R.D. Sorkin; Forks in the Road, on the Way to
Quantum Gravity, talk given at the conference
entitled “Directions in General Relativity”, held
at College Park, Maryland, May, 1993; Int. J.
Th. Phys. 36 : 2759–2781 (1997) arXiv:gr-
qc/9706002 ; (PreObservation Cosmological
Constant)
R.D. Sorkin, Discrete Gravity; a series of
lectures to the First Workshop on
Mathematical Physics and Gravitation, held
Oaxtepec, Mexico, Dec. 1995 (unpublished);
(PreObservation Cosmological Constant)
R.D. Sorkin, Big extra dimensions make
Lambda too small; arXiv:gr-qc/0503057v1;
(Cosmological Constant)
R.D. Sorkin, Is the cosmological "constant" a
nonlocal quantum residue of discreteness of
the causal set type?; Proceedings of the
PASCOS-07 Conference, July 2007, Imperial
College London; arXiv:0710.1675;
(Cosmological Constant)
J. Zuntz, The CMB in a Causal Set Universe,
arXiv:0711.2904 (CMB)
Lorentz and Poincaré invariance,
phenomenology
L. Bombelli, J. Henson, R.D. Sorkin;
Discreteness without symmetry breaking: a
theorem; arXiv:gr-qc/0605006v1; (Lorentz
invariance, Sprinkling)
F. Dowker, J. Henson, R.D. Sorkin, Quantum
gravity phenomenology, Lorentz invariance
and discreteness; Mod. Phys. Lett. A19,
1829–1840, (2004) arXiv:gr-qc/0311055v3;
(Lorentz invariance, Phenomenology,
Swerves)
F. Dowker, J. Henson, R.D. Sorkin,
Discreteness and the transmission of light
from distant sources; arXiv:1009.3058
(Coherence of light, Phenomenology)
J. Henson, Macroscopic observables and
Lorentz violation in discrete quantum gravity;
arXiv:gr-qc/0604040v1; (Lorentz invariance,
Phenomenology)
N. Kaloper, D. Mattingly, Low energy bounds
on Poincaré violation in causal set theory;
Phys. Rev. D 74, 106001 (2006) arXiv:astro-
ph/0607485 (Poincaré invariance,
Phenomenology)
D. Mattingly, Causal sets and conservation
laws in tests of Lorentz symmetry; Phys. Rev.
D 77, 125021 (2008) arXiv:0709.0539
(Lorentz invariance, Phenomenology)
L. Philpott, F. Dowker, R.D. Sorkin, Energy-
momentum diffusion from spacetime
discreteness; arXiv:0810.5591
(Phenomenology, Swerves)
Black hole entropy in causal set theory
D. Dou, Black Hole Entropy as Causal Links;
Fnd. of Phys, 33 2:279-296(18) (2003);
arXiv:gr-qc/0302009v1 (Black hole entropy)
D.P. Rideout, S. Zohren, Counting entropy in
causal set quantum gravity ; arXiv:gr-
qc/0612074v1; (Black hole entropy)
D.P. Rideout, S. Zohren, Evidence for an
entropy bound from fundamentally discrete
gravity; Class. Quantum Grav. 23 (2006)
6195-6213; arXiv:gr-qc/0606065v2 (Black
hole entropy)
Locality and quantum field theory
G. Hemion, A discrete geometry: speculations
on a new framework for classical
electrodynamics (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/B
F00670680) ; Int. J. Theor. Phys. 27 (1988),
p. 1145 (Classical electrodynamics)
S. Johnston; Particle propagators on discrete
spacetime; 2008 Class. Quantum Grav. 25
202001; arXiv:0806.3083 (Quantum Field
Theory)
S. Johnston; The Feynman propagator for a
Free Scalar Field on a Causal Set; Phys. Rev.
Lett. 103, 180401 (2009); arXiv:0909.0944
(Quantum Field Theory)
R.D. Sorkin; Does Locality Fail at Intermediate
Length-Scales; Towards Quantum Gravity,
Daniele Oriti (ed.) (Cambridge University
Press, 2007); arXiv:gr-qc/0703099v1;
(d'Alembertian, Locality)
R. Sverdlov, L. Bombelli; Gravity and Matter in
Causal Set Theory; arXiv:0801.0240

R. Sverdlov; A Geometrical Description of

Spinor Fields; arXiv:0802.1914
R. Sverdlov; Bosonic Fields in Causal Set
Theory; arXiv:0807.4709

R. Sverdlov; Gauge Fields in Causal Set

Theory; arXiv:0807.2066

R. Sverdlov; Spinor fields in Causal Set Theory;

arXiv:0808.2956
Causal set dynamics
M. Ahmed, D. Rideout, Indications of de Sitter
Spacetime from Classical Sequential Growth
Dynamics of Causal Sets; arXiv:0909.4771

A.Ash, P. McDonald, Moment Problems and

the Causal Set Approach to Quantum Gravity;
J.Math.Phys. 44 (2003) 1666-1678; arXiv:gr-
qc/0209020
A.Ash, P. McDonald, Random partial orders,
posts, and the causal set approach to discrete
quantum gravity (https://archive.today/201302
23083234/http://link.aip.org/link/?JMAPAQ/4
6/062502/1) ; J.Math.Phys. 46 (2005)
062502 (Analysis of number of posts in
growth processes)
D.M.T. Benincasa, F. Dowker, The Scalar
Curvature of a Causal Set; arXiv:1001.2725;
(Scalar curvature, actions)
G. Brightwell; M. Luczak; Order-invariant
Measures on Causal Sets; arXiv:0901.0240;
(Measures on causal sets)
G. Brightwell; M. Luczak; Order-invariant
Measures on Fixed Causal Sets;
arXiv:0901.0242; (Measures on causal sets)
G. Brightwell, H.F. Dowker, R.S. Garcia, J.
Henson, R.D. Sorkin; General covariance and
the "problem of time" in a discrete cosmology;
In ed. K. Bowden, Correlations:Proceedings
of the ANPA 23 conference, August 16–21,
2001, Cambridge, England, pp. 1–17.
Alternative Natural Philosophy Association,
(2002).;arXiv:gr-qc/0202097; (Cosmology,
Dynamics, Observables)
G. Brightwell, H.F. Dowker, R.S. Garcia, J.
Henson, R.D. Sorkin; "Observables" in causal
set cosmology; Phys. Rev. D67, 084031,
(2003); arXiv:gr-qc/0210061; (Cosmology,
Dynamics, Observables)
G. Brightwell, J. Henson, S. Surya; A 2D model
of Causal Set Quantum Gravity: The
emergence of the continuum;
arXiv:0706.0375; (Quantum Dynamics, Toy
Model)
G.Brightwell, N. Georgiou; Continuum limits
for classical sequential growth models (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110312102804/htt
p://www.maths.bris.ac.uk/~maxng/contlim.pd
f) University of Bristol preprint. (Dynamics)

A. Criscuolo, H. Waelbroeck; Causal Set

Dynamics: A Toy Model; Class. Quantum
Grav.16:1817-1832 (1999); arXiv:gr-
qc/9811088; (Quantum Dynamics, Toy
Model)
F. Dowker, S. Surya; Observables in extended
percolation models of causal set
cosmology;Class. Quantum Grav. 23, 1381-
1390 (2006); arXiv:gr-qc/0504069v1;
(Cosmology, Dynamics, Observables)
M. Droste, Universal homogeneous causal
sets, J. Math. Phys. 46, 122503 (2005);
arXiv:gr-qc/0510118; (Past-finite causal sets)
J. Henson, D. Rideout, R.D. Sorkin, S. Surya;
Onset of the Asymptotic Regime for
(Uniformly Random) Finite Orders;
Experimental Mathematics 26, 3:253-266
(2017); (Cosmology, Dynamics)
A.L. Krugly; Causal Set Dynamics and
Elementary Particles (https://dx.doi.org/10.10
23/A:1013273214769) ; Int. J. Theo. Phys 41
1:1-37(2004);; (Quantum Dynamics)
X. Martin, D. O'Connor, D.P. Rideout, R.D.
Sorkin; On the “renormalization”
transformations induced by cycles of
expansion and contraction in causal set
cosmology; Phys. Rev. D 63, 084026 (2001);
arXiv:gr-qc/0009063 (Cosmology, Dynamics)
D.A. Meyer; Spacetime Ising models; (UCSD
preprint May 1993); (Quantum Dynamics)
D.A. Meyer; Why do clocks tick? (https://dx.do
i.org/10.1007/BF00759191) ; General
Relativity and Gravitation 25 9:893-900;;
(Quantum Dynamics)
I. Raptis; Quantum Space-Time as a Quantum
Causal Set, arXiv:gr-qc/0201004v8
D.P. Rideout, R.D. Sorkin; A classical
sequential growth dynamics for causal sets,
Phys. Rev. D, 6, 024002 (2000);arXiv:gr-
qc/9904062 (Cosmology, Dynamics)
D.P. Rideout, R.D. Sorkin; Evidence for a
continuum limit in causal set dynamics Phys.
Rev. D 63:104011,2001; arXiv:gr-
qc/0003117(Cosmology, Dynamics)
R.D. Sorkin; Indications of causal set
cosmology; Int. J. Theor. Ph. 39(7):1731-1736
(2000); arXiv:gr-qc/0003043; (Cosmology,
Dynamics)
R.D. Sorkin; Relativity theory does not imply
that the future already exists: a
counterexample; Relativity and the
Dimensionality of the World, Vesselin Petkov
(ed.) (Springer 2007, in press); arXiv:gr-
qc/0703098v1; (Dynamics, Philosophy)
M. Varadarajan, D.P. Rideout; A general
solution for classical sequential growth
dynamics of Causal Sets; Phys. Rev. D 73
(2006) 104021; arXiv:gr-qc/0504066v3;
(Cosmology, Dynamics)
 M.R., Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar (2013).
"Binding Energy of the Very Early Universe:
Abandoning Einstein for a Discretized Three–
Torus Poset.A Proposal on the Origin of Dark
Energy". Gravitation and Cosmology. 19 (2):
106–113. Bibcode:2013GrCo...19..106K (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013GrCo...1
9..106K) . doi:10.1134/s0202289313020059
(https://doi.org/10.1134%2Fs020228931302
0059) . S2CID 121288092 (https://api.seman
ticscholar.org/CorpusID:121288092) .;
(Dynamics, Poset)

External links
The causal set approach to quantum
gravity (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0601
121) a review article by Joe Henson on
causal sets
Space-time as a causal set (http://link.a
ps.org/abstract/PRL/v59/p521) - one
of the first papers by Luca Bombelli,
Joohan Lee, David Meyer, and Rafael D.
Sorkin
Geometry from order: causal sets (http
s://web.archive.org/web/202001161232
48/http://www.einstein-online.info/en/s
potlight/causal_sets/) - non-technical
article by Rafael D. Sorkin on Einstein
Online (https://www.einstein-online.info/
en/spotlights/quantum/)
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Causal_sets&oldid=1151329819"

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