Introduction-

I have always been a music enthusiast and when I was taking my first lesson of guitar I
realized that the string vibrates and due to the vibrations the sound is produced. My 11 year
old self was beyond fascinated by this fact and my interest in the production of sound grew
from that point onwards. Later on, I learned that there are two types of waves longitudinal
and transverse. Sound is a longitudinal wave in which the particles vibrate along the direction
of wave propagation. Sound waves travel through air as compression and rarefaction.
A wave is a disturbance carried from one place to another. I was still not clear about how
exactly my guitar produced waves. Until, I studied about standing wave in my class. A
standing wave is formed when two waves of same frequency and amplitude moving in
opposite directions interfere with each other. After learning about standing wave I could
visualize the working of my guitar. A disturbance was created when I flicked the string which
was carried in both the directions of the string and then reflected back. These waves then
interacted with each other forming a standing wave which produced the sound. Apart from
this I learned how different harmonics can create different sounds. The fundamental
harmonic is the lowest possible frequency at which a standing wave is formed.

Figure 1

Standing waves are formed in four cases – standing wave in a string fixed at both ends,
standing wave in string fixed at one end, standing wave in an open pipe and standing wave in
a closed pipe. A standing wave can help us figure out the fundamental harmonic (frequency).
For this report the topic I have finalized is speed of sound in air and how other factors affect
the same. The speed of sound in air is about 343 meters per second. I will be using a
resonance tube in this experiment to figure out how water level (wavelength) depends on
fundamental frequency. A resonance tube is an apparatus that can be used to determine
wavelength of a sound at a given frequency which can in turn be used to calculate speed.
Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive troughs or crusts. In a resonance tube
water level can be changed and an external sound source is kept near the mouth of the tube
which provides constant frequency. In this case by manipulating the water level we can
determine the wavelength of the sound wave at fundamental frequency and calculate the
speed of sound.

Research question- To what extent does position of water level in first harmonic depend on
fundamental frequency of the pipe applied by using an external sound source (tuning fork) if
the temperature, length, diameter and orientation are kept constant.

Background information –
The speed of sound in air can be determined using a resonance tube, which operates on the
principles of acoustic resonance. Resonance is a phenomenon in which a vibrating system
forces another system around it to vibrate with greater amplitude at a specific frequency. The
resonance in a close ended tube requires the following lengths for first harmonic, third and
fifth as seen on Figure 2

Figure 2

The resonance tube consists of a long narrow tube with one closed end and one open end.
Here, the standing wave concept can be applied. When a sound is introduced into the tube, it
bounces back and is reflected this creates a standing wave. Standing waves have points called
antinodes and nodes. A node is a point along a standing wave where the wave has a minimum
amplitude meaning the disturbance of the wave is almost zero. A antinode is a point along the
wave where there is maximum amplitude meaning the displacement of particle from mean is
maximum. French mathematician Joseph Sauveur backs this up with his experiments
conducted on violin and plates. He would create vibrations using a violin bow and sprinkle
the vibrating plate with sand grains. The sand would collect at locations where there was no
sound. This would result in different figures which supported the existence of nodes in the
different modes of vibration. In case of one end open and one end closed pipe, a node is
always formed at the fixed end while an antinode is always formed at the free end. The
displacement antinode is the pressure node and the displacement node is the pressure
antinode. Since we know that in a resonance tube one end is closed with water and the other
is open, we know at the surface of water a node will be formed. According to Pierre Simon
Laplace, the physicist responsible for the discover of resonance pipe, the frequency of the
standing wave produced in a closed tube is related to the length of the tube and the speed of
sound in air within it. He used this to determine speed of sound in air by measuring the
frequency of the standing wave in a closed tube and calculating the wavelength. The formula
used for calculation of speed is-
Speed of sound = frequency*wavelength
Here the wavelength is equal to twice the length of the tube.

Hypothesis-

In the given resonance tube diagram (Figure 3) the distance between the mouth of the
cylindrical tube and the sound source is taken as x. This is the uncertainty of the experiment
as there is going to be a certain distance that is between the source of sound and surface of
water. L1 is the length between the mouth of tube and water level.
Figure 3

Using this data the equation-

λ
x + L1=
4
Which can be written as –
λ
L 1= −x
4

Since –
v=f ∗λ
v
λ=
f
In put value of λ in equation –
v
L 1= −x
4f

This equation can be expressed as –

1
∗v
f
L 1= +(−x)
4

1
This equation is similar to equation of a straight line which is y=mx+c . Where LI= y, x is
f
λ
and the slope of the line is . -x is the possible length between the sound source and the
4
mouth of tube.

Selection of variable-
Additionally, some variables need to be kept constant and some need to be manipulated to get
the desired results. In this experiment length of the tube, room temperature, diameter of the
tube and the orientation of the apparatus are kept as controlled variables. Meaning they are
kept constant and not changed. These variables are needed to be kept constant as they may
effect the result of the experiment. The room temperature can be observed by the digital lab
thermometer and maintained with the use of a.c. The same set up apparatus can be used so
that the orientation, tube length and diameter remains the same. The independent variable is
the one that is not changed by the other variable. Here, independent variable is the position of
water level. Dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or tested, it is changing
due to independent variable. Fundamental frequency is the dependent variable in the
experiment.

Requirement –

S.No Device name Specification Quantity

1 Resonance tube The set up should not be 1
altered or changed throughout
the experiment.
2 Rubber mallet - 1
3 Tuning fork Each tuning fork of different 4
frequencies
4 Water Should be taken at room -
temperature pressure
5 Ruler - 1
Table 1

Procedure -

To set up the apparatus first fill the tube with water nearly to the top. Then strike one tuning
fork of known frequency of 256, 384,480 and 512 with the help of the rubber mallet and
place the tuning fork over the mouth of the tube. While doing this it should be kept in mind
that the tuning fork does not hit the plastic tube as it might damage the equipment. The water
reservoir is to be moved while doing this. The water level can be lowered slowly while
observing the amplification of the sound being produced. When a resonance will be
produced, a reinforcement of the sound will be heard. To locate the maximum sound intensity
point the water level can be moved up and down several times. This point is the length which
is then recorded in a data table like shown on Table 2 using the ruler. This procedure is
repeated two times more by taking the water level to initial again, this is done to increase
accuracy as all the three lengths calculated can be used to find average length. The length
λ
obtained is as it is the fundamental frequency or first harmonic frequency. The experiment
4
is then repeated using the tuning forks of known frequencies. While I was performing the
experiment I tried to get the lowest uncertainty by making sure I filled the tube with water to
almost the top leaving only little space for air pocket. When I was conducting the experiment
there were other students in the lab this made it harder to hear the sound. To maximize the
proficiency of the experiment I used a sound sensor. I also faced an issue while moving the
water reservoir and ended up taking help from a friend to move the reservoir while I observed
the resonance.

Data table –

With different frequencies length L1 can be obtained –

Frequency f ± Δf 1 1 Length /L L average ±∆ L

∆
Hz f f cm/ L1 cm
−1 −1
Hz Hz
Trial 1/ Trial Trial
T1 2/ 3/
T2 T3
256 256± 0.5 0.0039 0.000008 34.5 34.4 34.6 34.5 0.1
384 384± 0.5 0.0026 0.000003 22 22.2 21.8 22 0.2
480 480± 0.5 0.0020 0.000002 17.5 17.3 17.7 17.5 0.2
512 512± 0.5 0.0020 0.000002 16.7 16.8 16.6 16.7 0.1
Table 2

Here, the frequency uncertainty is assumed to be ± 0.5 Hz for each tuning fork. As for digital
device the frequency uncertainty is taken as 1. To take out the frequency uncertainty in
1
mechanical device we can divide the digital uncertainty by 2 . Therefore, would give 0.5.
2
The uncertainty frequency is ± 0.5.

To calculate L average–
T 1+ T 2+T 3
L 1=
3

For ∆ L,

Lmax−Lmin
±( )
2
1 ∆f
For , ∆ = 2
f f

Graph –
 1
By using the obtained values we can plot a graph of L1 against . L1 is taken as y axis and
f
1
is taken as x axis. Graph 1 shows a linear line with uncertainties in both horizontal and
f
vertical axis. The graph also shows line of best fit
Using the equation –
1
∗v
f
L 1= +(−x)
4

v
We know that is the slope of the line. So, v = 4* slope
4

Graph 1

For the slope –

y 2− y 1
x 2−x 1

34.5−16.7
So , = 9368.421053
0.0039−0.0020

Now , v = 4* slope
4* 9368.421053= 37473.68421

To get answer in m divide by 100

Therefore speed of sound in air= 375 m/s

The absolute uncertainty in v can be calculated by using min and max slope.

Vmax−Vmin
∆ v=
2

378−371
=±3.5
2

Graph 2

Graph 2 showcases the y intercept, this is basically the -x which is the distance between the
sound source and the mouth of the tube. It is negligible in this case.

Conclusion -
To conclude speed of sound in air can be calculated by using resonance tube. In the
experiment the speed of sound in air is calculated to be 375m/s with a uncertainty of ±3.5.

Evaluation –
During the experiment, some systematic errors or random errors can take place which would
alter the result and accuracy of the report. While calculating the lengths the observers eye
position can affect the result, this is known as parallax error. The observer should see from
exact perpendicular position to the point to avoid this.