Integrated Training System Designed in association with the club66pro.com question practice aid Module 2 Physics for a 5th Edition Exclusively from WWW. airtechbooks.comop’ Integrated Training System Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are Sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams, They are specifically designed to moet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is Printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives” We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. ‘Then, using your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section. and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the Subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choive questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So it you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not pamculary well or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.com website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing, We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono Printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour. on the club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. Module 2 Preface i TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyngnt 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank ii Module 2 Pretace TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2011Module 2 Chapters 1. Matter 2.1. Mechanics - Statics 2.2. Mechanics - Kinetics 2.3. Mechanics - Dynamics 2.4. Mechanics - Fluid Dynamics 3. Thermodynamics 4. Optics (Light) 5. Wave Motion and Sound Module 2 Preface Integrated Training System iii TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copynant 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank iv Module 2 Preface TTS Intogratas Training System © Cooyriaht 2011cop Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 2 Licence Category B1 and B2 Physics 2.1 MatterIntegrated Training System ‘ Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever. :e. Photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written Permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Byte knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,2 or 2) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the eategory BI or the category B2 basic knowledge levels, The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples, The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject The applicant should be able to give a general description ofthe subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject, IRS, applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures, LEVEL 3 AA detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory ofthe subject and interelationships with other subjects The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical tundamentals and specific examples. The aoplicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject he applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. he abplcant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate 1-2 Module 2.1 Matter TTS Integrated Training System este oednae © Copyright 2011 cveresoy be stoneoy Integrated Training System Table of Contents t Module 2.1 - Matter 5 The Nature of Matter 5 The Components of Atoms 5 i Periodic Table of the Elements 7 Chemical Definitions a) The Electronic Structure of Atoms I Chemical Bonding 09 States of Matter 89 ! Module 2.1 Matter 13 se ar sn ‘TTS intgeatod Training System I a ‘© copyng 2011Integrated Training System Designed na: th se Module 2.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specifiad below: _ | EASA 66 Level Objective — _ ___| Reference Bi | —s«#&B | Matter 24 1 at Nature of matter: the chemical elements, structure of atoms, molecules ~ Chemical compounds States: solid, liquid and gaseous ‘Changes between states 14 Module 2.1 Matter TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011ow Integrated Training System t : Module 2.1 - Matter The Nature of Matter Scientists for a long time suspected that all substances were composed of small particles which they called atoms. However, it wasn’t until the beginning of this century that the existence of ‘atoms was demonstrated to everyone's satisfaction. The size of the atom was found to be so small that a few hundred million, if placed side by side in a row, would form a line less than an inch long. ‘All atoms are, crudely speaking, the same size and can be thought to consist of two main parts. The outer part is composed of 1 or more orbits of electrons. These orbits makes up most of the volume of the atom yet contributes practically nothing to its substance. The other part, located at the centre, is extremely small compared to the atom as a whole, yet essentially all of the real substance of the atom can be attributed to this small speck We call this speck the nucleus. Further investigation revealed that the nucleus is actually composed of two kinds of particles of roughly equal size and substance packed closely together. These nuclear particles are the proton and neutron. When we refer to the amount of material or substance in an object, we are really talking about the number of protons and neutrons in that object. Also, what we perceive as the mass of an object is related directly to the number of protons and neutrons contained it. The simplest atom is hydrogen which has a single proton for a nucleus. An atom of lead, on the other hand, has 82 protons and 125 neutrons in its nucleus and so has 207 (125 + 82) times as much material or substance as an atom of hydrogen. The size of an atom bears no simple relation to the number of particles in its nucleus. A sodium atom, for example, with 11 protons and 12 neutrons is approximately the same size as an atom ‘of mercury with 80 protons and 121 neutrons. In general, we can say that the size of an atom is determined by its electron orbits, its substance is determined by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. The Components of Atoms Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we study in Chemistry. However from experiments done in the late 19" and early 20" century it was deduced that atoms were made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles (table 1.1) Module 2.1 Matter 15 se snore TTS integrated Training System (eeoa yet ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System fy) | Particle Relative Electrical Comments | | ee me oo ee oom oe mass charge | Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus | | Proton 1 +1 (positive) In the nucleus | Electron “heso -1 (negative) Arranged in energy levels | or shells around the nucleus | } Table 1.1: The sub-atomic components of atoms Figure 1.1 gives some idea on the structure of an atom. Figure 1.1: The structure of an atom 1-6 Module 2.1 Matter TTS integrated Training System oceans gy ©Copyright 2011 ;erreIntegrated Training System "A ww i FE Va He in eevee via ok 7. Pe 2 Li | Be B/c|N|o|F [Ne Cm bse 3|Na| Mg ai] si] P| S| cl} Ar tA WAvA_WA_viA— vA —— we a 2 Si - ee pe fe je fe pe he «| K |Ca| Se) Ti | V | Cr/Mn| Fe | Co| Ni | Cu/| Zn/Ga|Ge| As | Se| Br | Kr PERIOD irae oe aa aan aaa s}Rb| Sr} ¥ | Zr |Nb|Mo} Tc | Ru| Rh| Pd} Ag| Cd] In | Sn} Sbj Te} | | Xe lef aire re eae asa °)/Cs/Bal\ | Hf) Ta| W)}Re|Os| Ir | Pt | Au) Hg} TI) Pb Bi | Po| At|Rn fares, \, oa foe Fras fror roe — roa favo fe 7) Fr| Raj’ \| Rf | Db) Sg) Bh} Hs | Mt [Uun|Uuu/Uub} aaa dene dee ar ee ero Ce| Pr | Nd| Pm) Sm} Eu | Gd| Tb | Dy | Ho} Er | Tm) Yb| Lu iso ar fae fas fon Jos [se Jar ua Jos fro ror fra fros Th| Pa| U | Np| Pu|Am)Cm/) Bk | Cf | Es |Fm)| Md) No| Lr Figure 1.2: The Periodic Table of the Elements The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any Group A Group is a vertical column of like elements e.g. Group IA, The Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K etc.), Group VIIB, The Halogens (F, Cl, Br, | etc.) and Group VIII (or 0), The Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.). The Group number equals the number of electrons in the outer shell (e.g. chlorine's electron arrangement is 2.8.7, the second element down, in Group 7). A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties. The Period number equals the number of shells (1-7). Module 2.1 Matter 17 Use ander date TTS inlogeatod Training System ce er © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 18 Module 2.1 Matter TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011& Chemical Definitions Elements Pure substances, made up of atoms with the same number of protons. Note that an element: consists of only one kind of atom, cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical means, and can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen). Mixtures Mixtures are of pure substances. Mixtures have the properties of the different substances that make it up. Mixtures melt at a range of temperatures and are easy to separate. Note that a mixture: consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled, can be separated into its components by physical means, and often retains many of the properties of its components. Compounds Pure substances made up more than 1 element which have been joined together by a chemical reaction therefore the atoms are difficult to separate. The properties of a compound are different from the atoms that make it up. Splitting of a compound is called chemical analysis. Note that a compound: consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together, can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not by physical means), has properties that are different from its component elements, and always contains the same ratio of its component atoms. Atomic Number The atomic number (also known as the proton number) is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It is traditionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an atom of neutral charge, atomic number is equal to the number of electrons Mass Number The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the number of protons and neutrons (also defined as a less commonly known term, nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. The mass number is unique for each isotope of an element and is written either after the element name or as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol, For example, Module 2.1 Matter 1-9 Use anor dace TTS integrated Training System ‘rood se tterent ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System 4 0 Ak carbon-12 (12C) has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic number (Z) as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass number, thus: 12 6c The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons (N) in a given nucleus: N=AzZ For example: Carbon-14 is created from Nitrogen-14 with seven protons (p) and seven neutrons via a cosmic ray interaction which transmutes 1 proton into 1 neutron. Thus the atomic number decreases by 1 (Z: 7-6) and the mass number remains the same (A = 14), however the number of neutrons increases by 1 (n: 7-8). Before: Nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n) After: Carbon-14 (6p, 8n) Molecules A pure substance which results when two or more atoms of a single element share electrons, for example Oz. It can also more loosely refer to a compound, which is a combination of two or more atoms of two or more different elements, for example H.0. Atoms combine to form more complex structures which we call molecules. Like building blocks, these molecules organize to form all of the materials, solid, liquid and gas, which we encounter in our daily lives. Solids and liquids are materials in which the molecules attract one another so strongly that their relative motion is severely restricted. In a gas, the freedom of motion of the molecules is only slightly influenced by their mutual attraction. This is why gases fill the entire space to which they are confined, They spread out unconstrained until they encounter the walls of their container. Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. This gives each isotope of the element a different mass or nucleon number but being the same element they have the same atomic or proton number. There are small physical differences between the isotopes e.g. the heavier isotope has a greater density and boiling point. However, because they have the same number of protons they have the same electronic structure and are identical chemically. Examples are illustrated below. Do not assume the word isotope means itis radioactive, this depends on the stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms might be referred to as radioisotopes. 1-10 Module 2.1 Matter TTS Intograted Training System © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System ‘ ‘ es 1 2. 3 1H Hang 1H are the three isotopes of hydrogen. They are called hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium respectively. How do we distinguish between them? They each have one single proton (Z = 1), but differ in the number of their neutrons. Hydrogen has no neutron, deuterium has one, and tritium has two neutrons. The isotopes of hydrogen have, respectively, mass numbers of one, two, and three. Hydrogen-1 is the most common, there is a trace of hydrogen-2 naturally but hydrogen-3 is very unstable and is used in atomic fusion weapons. 3He |, He 2 and 2 are the two isotopes of helium with mass numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2 neutrons respectively but both have 2 protons. Helium-3 is formed in the Sun by the initial nuclear fusion process. Helium-4 is also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive alpha decay of an unstable nucieus. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, it picks up two electrons and becomes the atoms of the gas helium. 2B 24: uNa and uNa are the two isotopes of sodium with mass numbers of 23 and 24, with 42 and 13 neutrons respectively but both have 11 protons. Sodium-23 is quite stable e.g. in ‘common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium-24 is a radio-isotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine as a radioactive tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system Ionization When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process of electron exchange, itis said to be ionised, For ionisation to take place, there must be a transfer of energy which results in a change in the internal energy of the atom. An atom having more than its normal amount of electrons acquires a negative charge, and is called a negative ion (or ‘anion’). The atom that gives up some of its normal electrons is left with less negative charges than positive charges Snd is called a positive ion (or ‘cation’). Thus, ionisation is the process by which an atom loses or gains electrons. Cation - A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals typically form cations. ‘Anion - An anion is a negatively charged ion. Non-metals typically form anions. Module 2.1 Matter 11 ee anor ate TTS integrated Training System ‘remaaoy re saanen ‘o Gopynget 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 1-12 Module 2.1 Matter TTS integrated Training System © Copynant 2011Integrated Training System jest pat The Electronic Structure of Atoms ‘The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus and with increasing distance from the nucieus. The shells are lettered from the innermost shell outwards from K to Q. There are rules about the maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell. The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons The 2nd shell (L) has a maximum of 8 electrons The 3rd shell (M) has a maximum of 18 electrons The 4th shell (N) has a maximum of 32 electrons Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the mathematical formulations predicted by Neils Bohr. He suggested that electrons are distributed in orbits and the number of Biectrons held in the orbit depends on the number of the orbit. The orbits are counted outwards from the nucleus. Higher the orbit number, farther are the electrons in that orbit from the nucleus. If the orbit number is “n’, then the maximum electrons held in the orbit is given as 2n’. The first orbit has n=1, and will hold maximum of 2 electrons, the second orbit has n=2 and is capable of holding a total of 8 electrons; similarly the third orbit will be able to contain 18 electrons and so on. Electrons within an atom have definite energies. 2 The electrons closest to the nucleus (n=1) are most 2 2 tightly bound; the reason is because of stronger electrostatic attraction with the nucleus. Electrons in the highest orbit are least tightly bound. Electrons in the same orbit have same energies. The electron orbits are also called as electron energy levels or shells. Electronic shells are known as K shell, L 2 shell, M shell, N shell corresponding to orbit number Hellum (2=2) Neon (2=10) n=1,2,3 and 4 respectively. Higher number orbits are assigned shell names in alphabetical order after Figure 1.3: The atomic structure of N, Helium and Neon Module 2.1 Matter 1-13 se ander ase TTS Integrated Training System (irre aatament ‘o Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = LETTER DESIGNATION £ SHELL NUMBER Figure 1.4: Electron shell (orbit) designation neutral atom), shorthand electron arrangement On Period 1 On Period 2 1-14 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011 ® hydrogen (1) 1 e = electron (atomic no.) or (electrons) helium (2) 2 Figure 1.5: Electron arrangement of Hydrogen and Helium number of electrons in a @}@ lithium (3) 2.1 carbon (6) 2.4 neon 0) 2.8 Figure 1.6: Electron arrangement of Lithium, Carbon and Neon Module 2.1 MatterIntegrated Training System Na (11) 2.8.1 CI(17)2.8.7 Ar (18) 2.8.8 Figure 1.7: Electron arrangement of Sodium, Chlorine and Argon potassium (19) calcium (20) 288.1 288.2 Figure 1.8: Electron arrangement of Potassium and Calcium Valency Hydrogen is the simplest element. It has one electron. Its outer shell only holds two electrons. Let us use Hydrogen as a standard to see how other atoms combine with it. Table 1.2 lists the simplest compound of selected elements with Hydrogen Valency can be simply defined as the number of Hydrogen atoms that an element can combine with, In the above table, Helium, Neon and Argon have a valency of 0. They do not normally form compounds. Lithium, Sodium and Potassium have a valency of 1 because they combine with one Hydrogen atom. Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium all have a valency of 2: they combine with two Hydrogen atoms. Note that the valences of all these atoms are equal to the number of outer electrons that these elements have. Boron and Aluminium combine with three Hydrogen atoms - their valences are 3 - and they have three outer electrons. Carbon and Silicon combine with four Hydrogen atoms. The valency of these elements is 4. It ill come as no surprise that they both have four outer electrons. Any element with 4 electrons in its outer shell is known as a semiconductor Module 2.1 Matter 1-15, anger ese 6 “TTS integrated Training System soy semen “S Gopynnt 2011Integrated Training System i Atom Symbol StF Compound Helium He Full_~—None Lithiurn Li 1 Lill Beryllium Be 2 BeH, Boron B 3 BHs Carbon c 4 CH, Nitrogen N 5 NH Oxygen ° 6 H.0 Fluorine F 7 HF Neon Ne Full None Sodium Na 1 NaH Magnesium Mg 2 MgHe Aluminium al 3 Als Silicon Si 4 SiMy Phosphorus P 5 PHs Sulphur s 6 Hes ‘Chlorine cl 7 HCI Argon Ar Full None Potassium K 1 KH Calcium Ca 2 Cal, Table 1.2: Electrons in outer shells of some common elements What about Nitrogen and Phosphorus? They have five outer electrons, But they normally only combine with three Hydrogen atoms. Their valences are 3. Note that 3 is § less that 8 These atoms are three electrons short of a full shell. Please note that both Nitrogen and Phosphorus can also have a valency of 5. Some atoms are capable of having more than one valency. That will confuse the issue so we wil talk of nornal valency. Now to Oxygen and Sulphur. Both have six outer electrons. Sixis two short of a full shell, Their normal valences are 2 and they combine with two atoms of Hydrogen, Water is H,0. Finally, Fluorine and Chlorine - seven outer electrons. This is one short of a full shell. They both combine with a single Hydrogen atom and their normal valences are 1 1-16 Module 2.1 Matter TTS integrated Training Systom aor aes ©Copyright 2011 seedy samencop’ Integrated Training System ‘Ag a side note, Chlorine can also have valences of 3, 5 and 7. The reasons are well beyond the scope of these notes. The rules above can be summarised as follows: The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number of outer electrons if that number is four or less. Otherwise, the valency is equal to 8 minus the number of outer electrons. The atoms with full electron shells (Helium, Neon, Argon) are chemically inert forming few compounds, The atoms don't even interact with each other very much. These elements are gases with very low boiling points. The atoms with a single outer electron or a single missing electron are all highly reactive. Sodium is more reactive than Magnesium. Chlorine is more reactive than Oxygen. Generally speaking, the closer an atom is to having a full electron shell, the more reactive it is. Atoms with ‘one outer electron are more reactive than those with two outer electrons, etc. Atoms that are ‘one electron short of a full shell are more reactive than those that are two short. Atoms with only a few electrons in its outer shell are good electrical conductors. Atoms with 8, or elose to 8 electrons in its outer shell are poor conductors (or good insulators). This is why atoms with 4 electrons in its outer shell are semi-conductors. When a semiconductor (such as silicon or germanium) atom bonds with another similar atom, it does so covalently, Each atom shares one electron with 4 neighbour atoms. Thus all its Slectrons are used up in what becomes a solid lattice of semiconductor atoms. The solid material has therefore no free electrons (and no holes for electrons to fit into). The following names are given to ions of the specific number of electron bindings (valence): 1 electron binding - monovalent 2 electron binding - divalent 3 electron binding - trivalent 4 electron binding - tetravalent 5 electron binding - pentavalent 6 electron binding - hexavalent Module 2.1 Matter 117 Use ander ese 6 TTS integrated Training System Seremaabyneasenere ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System ron) Elena Electrons par Shell Elemar Electrons per Shell yaregen Helium Lithium Beryllium [Boron Carbon Nitrogen Fluorine’ (eon Sodiu fagnosi luminium icon hospharu Sulphur lorine rgon otassium alum scandium itanium /anadiur hromium, langanesé iodine Xenon [Caesium Barium Canthanur Cerium Praseooyin Neodymiu romethiu samarium sadly erbium Sprosia jolmium rbium hulu (erbium uletium jainium rantalum jungsten thenium rium idium latinum kd lero lium ad ismuth onium atine don inciuh dium tinium jorium. actinium nium tuniumh onium iericium ium lium itorniur steinium, rium \delevium lium foncium ‘obalt lickel ef inc iam rmanian Seni lenium mine ton. bicium rontium onium ium lybdenum hnetium thenium ium ladium rer iio ium 0 1 2 ion Table 1.3: Electrons per shell 1-18 TTS integrated Training System © Copyngnt 2011 Module 2.1 Matter severed aesop’ Integrated Training System Al bese Chemical Bonding Adhesion and Cohesion ‘cohesion’ is the intermolecular force between liquid particle types (for example, it is what makes water molecules stick together, or ‘cohere’, to make a rain drop). ‘Adhesion’ is the intermolecular force between dissimilar atoms (for example, it is what makes the rain drops ‘adhere’ to a washing line). These types of bonding are temporary. Atomic bonding refers to the permanent bonding between atoms which holds all materials together. Noble Gases Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in the air around us as single atoms. These are the Noble Gases and have very stable electron arrangements e.g. 2, 2.8 and 2.8.8 and are shown in the diagrams below. 2 ©@©® helium 2)2 neon (10)2.8 argon (18) 2.8.8 Figure 1.9: (Atomic Number) and electron arrangement Covalent and lonic Bonding All other atoms therefore, bond to become electronically more stable, that is to become like Noble Gases in electron arrangement. Atoms can do this in two ways COVALENT BONDING - sharing electrons to form molecules with covalent bonds, the bond is usually formed between two non-metallic elements in a molecule. or IONIC BONDING - By one atom transferring electrons to another atom. The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion and is usually a metal. The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion and is usually a non-metallic element. The types of bonding and the resulting properties of the elements or compounds are described in detail below. In all the electronic diagrams ONLY the outer electrons are shown. Module 2.1 Matter 1-19 ie ander acne ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘era ester ‘ocopyngnt 2011Integrated Training System Covalent Bonding Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of bond usually formed between two non-metallic elements. The molecules might be that of an element \'e. one type of atom only OR from different elements chemically combined to form a compound. The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction between the two positive Nuclei of the two atoms of the bond, and the electrons between them. One single covalent bond is a sharing of 1 pair of electrons, two pairs of shared electrons between the same two atoms gives a double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share 3 Pairs of electrons and give a triple bond. The Bonding in Small Covalent Molecules The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and examples of their formation are shown below. The electrons are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which atom the electrons come from, though all electrons are the same. The diagrams may only show the outer electron arrangements for atoms that use two or more electron shells. Examples of simple covalent molecules are .. Example 1 - 2 hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the element hydrogen H Bo B® coranerotom EXD py lere both atoms have a pseudo helium structure of 2 outer electrons around each atom. Example 2 - 2 chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element chlorine Clz OG OS combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo neon or argon structure of 8 outer electrons around each atom. 1-20 Module 2.1 Matter TTS integrated Training System wonat ye Suen © Copynight 2011 onenesspy Integrated Training System Example 3 - 1 atom of hydrogen (1) combines with 1 atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the molecule of the compound hydrogen chloride HC! cl @ oF ms and combine to form where hydrogen is electronically like helium and chlorine like neon or argon. Example 4 - 2 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule of the compound we call water H2O wig A m_ oO @.® «o8 and and combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically like helium and the oxygen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule can H H \Z oO be shown as with two hydrogen - oxygen single covalent bonds. Example 5 - 3 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of nitrogen (2.5) to form the molecule of the compound we call ammonia NH N ffl (a H three of and one combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule N. f Hu SH canbe shownas with three nitrogen - hydrogen single covalent bonds. Module 2.1 Matter 1-21 nets dcse 15 megated Tain System ‘ovr be tere ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System 7 ei eeoee (i Example 6 - 4 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of carbon (2.4) to form the molecule of the compound we call methane CH4 H AX Cc fH aay a four of and one of combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The H I c AN \NH Ay molecule can be shown as with four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds. All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent bonds. Below are three examples 7- 9, where there is a double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms have stable Noble Gas outer electron arrangements around each atom. Example 7 - Two atoms of oxygen (2.6) combine to form the molecules of the element oxygen hoke) On. The molecule has one double covalent bond O =O. Example 8 One atom of carbon (2.4) combines with two atoms of oxygen (2.6) to form carbon 5G0) dioxide CO>. ‘ nal The molecule can be shown as O = C =O with two carbon = oxygen double covalent bonds. 1-22 Module 2.1 Matter TTS Integrated Training System pam ann ©Copyright 2011 ecoleIntegrated Training System Designed in toon wt a i Example 9 - Two atoms of carbon (2.4) combine with four atoms of hydrogen (1) to fom aii) Cc Cc ethane Catt, 2? i HY -H -C=Co The molecule can be shown as H HH with one carbon = carbon double bond and four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds. The Properties of Small Covalent Molecules ‘The electrical forces of attraction between atoms in a molecule are strong and most molecules do not change on heating. However the forces between molecules are weak and easily weakened further on heating. Consequently small covalent molecules have low melting and boiling points. They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no tres electrons or ions in any state to carry electric charge. Most small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a solution. Large Covalent Molecules and their Properties It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent structure. This produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent bond network. This illustrated by carbon in the form of diamond. Carbon can form four single bonds to four other atoms etc. ete This type of structure is thermally very stable and they have high melting and boiling points. They are usually poor Conductors of electricity because the electrons are not usually free to move as they can in metallic structures. Also because of the strength of the bonding in the structure they are often very hard and will not dissolve in solvents like water. Figure 1.10: A plane of Carbon atoms from a diamond orystal Module 2.1 Matter 1-23 seis TTS Integrates Training SystemIntegrated Training System op lonic Bonding Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions. Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons. ‘The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal. The overall charge on the ion is positive due to excess positive nuclear charge (protons do NOT change in chemical reactions). The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic element. The overall charge on the ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess. of negative electrons. ‘The examples below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2 or 3, with a non-metal from Group 6 or Group 7 (The Halogens) Example 1- A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. sodium + chlorine => sodium chloride NaCl or ionic formula Na*Cr in terms of electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer electron to a chlorine atom forming a single positive sodium ion and a single negative chloride ion. The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, sodium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon. Na (2.8.1) + Cl (2.8.7) = Na’ (2.8) Cl (2.8.8) of N + (Na) [Na] combines with ONE ONE to form 1-24 Module 2.1 Matter TTS Integrated Training System sown) sereIntegrated Training System eS Example 2 - A Group 2 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. magnesium + chlorine = magnesium chloride MgClz or ionic formula Mg*(Cr)2 In terms of electron arrangement, the magnesium donates its two outer electrons to two chlorine atoms forming a double positive magnesium ion and two single negative chloride ions. The otoms have become stable ions, because electronically, magnesium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon. Mg (2.8.2) + 2CI (2.8.7) = Mg”* (2.8) 2CF (2.8.8) is ough ‘Se combines with TWO totom L® 2 (NOTE you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples a number subscript has been used, as in ordinary chemical formula) ONE see Example 3 - A Group 3 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. aluminium + fluorine => aluminium fluoride AIF; or ionic formula AI*(F)3 In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its three outer electrons to three fluorine atoms forming a triple positive aluminium ion and three single negative fluoride ions. The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, aluminium becomes like neon and also fluorine. Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.8.7) => AI™ (2.8) 3F (2.8) 3+ iT (any cre ait e'l, ONE combines with THREE to form Module 2.1 Matter 1-25 ee anor tebe ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘ergy eaten “e Gopyngnt 2011Integrated Training System i Example 4 - A Group 1 metal +a Group 6 non-metal e.g. petassium + oxygen = potassium oxide K20 or ionic formula (K*),O* fo an tor: This results in two single positive potassium ions to one double negative oxide ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like) 2K (2.8.8.1) + O (2.6) = 2K° (2.8.8) O* (2.8) 2- 0 +1¥6 a i 2 Two combine with ONE Example 5 - A Group 2 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g, calcium + ‘oxygen = calcium oxide Ca0 or ionic formula Ca**O to form In terms of electron arrangement, one calcium atom donates its two outer electrons to one mo gen atom. This results in a double positive calcium ion to cne double negative oxidle ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like) Ca (2.8.8.2) + O (2.6) => Ca (2.8.8) O* (2.8) 2- a ‘+ oO 2 Cs) [ca] ONE combines with ONE to form 1-26 Module 2.1 Matter TIS Integrated Training System se ge secs © Copyright 2011 overeat ne semen= claéliea.com qusetion pr Integrated Training System Example 6 - A Group 3 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. aluminium + oxygen = aluminium ‘oxide Al,0; or ionic formula (Al™*)2(07)s, In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms donate their three outer electrons to three oxygen atoms. This results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double negative oxide ions. All the ions have the stable electronic structure of neon 2.8 2Al (2.8.3) + 30 (2.6) => 2Al™* (2.8) 30 (2.8) 2 er, pe (a {of tay Ron Two combines with THREE to form © s The properties of lonic Compounds conve ion oom The ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an NCI /Na orderly way in a giant ionic lattice shown in the diagram on the left. The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction between the positive and negative ions next to each other in the lattice. Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic compounds. This strong bonding force makes the structure hard (if brittle) and have high melting and g points. Unlike covalent molecules, ALL ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature. Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all. Figure 1.11: Sodium Chloride lattice structure The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the ions are not free to move to carry an electric current. However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the liquid will now conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free. Module 2.1 Matter 1-27 een tears TTS intograted Training System (pons me ner ‘o Gopyaght 2011Integrated Training System Bonding in Metals The crystal lattice of metals consi original metal atoms are free to mov. free or ‘delocalised' electrons are the ‘electi strong elec ists of ions, NOT atoms. The outer electrons /e arout Positive metal ions - this is the metallic bond. Figure 1.12: ‘Electron cloud’ formation of lonic (or Metallic) Bonding This strong bonding generall and boiling points. Metals are good conductors piece of metal. Metals are also good conductors of hea Non-metallic solids conduct heat energy knocking against cooler less strongly vib on. In metals, as well as this ef freely to transfer the particle ki 1-28 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011 (-) from the ind between the positive metal ions formed (+). These ronic glue’ holding the particles together. There is a tween these mobile electrons and the ‘immobile’ y results in dense, strong materials with high melting of electricity because these ‘free’ electrons carry the charge of an electric current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied across a it. This is also due to the free moving electrons. by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms, rating atoms to pass the particle kinetic energy fect, the ‘hot’ high kinetic energy electrons move around inetic energy more efficiently to ‘cooler atoms. Module 2.1 Matter covenantfy Integrated Training System t aocialon mt be Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily tarnished by corrosive oxidation in air and water. States of Matter Solids - A solid object is characterized by its resistance to deformation and changes of volume. At the microscopic scale, a solid has these properties: The atoms or molecules that comprise the solid are packed closely together. These constituent elements have fixed positions in space relative to each other. This accounts for the solid's rigidity. In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a unit cell, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way; which is periodically repeated in three dimensions on a lattice. The spacing between unit cells in various directions is called its lattice parameters. If sufficient force is applied, its lattice atomic structure can be disrupted, causing permanent deformation. Because any solid has some thermal energy, its atoms vibrate. However, this movement is very small, and cannot be observed or felt under ordinary conditions. Liquids - A liquid's shape is confined to, but not determined by, the container it fills. That is to say, liquid particles (normally molecules or clusters of molecules) are free to move within the volume, but they form a discrete surface that may not necessarily be the same as the vessel The same cannot be said about a gas; it can also be considered a fluid, but it must conform to the shape of the container entirely. Gases — Gases consist of freely moving atoms or molecules without a definite shape and without a definite volume, Compared to the solid and liquid states of matter a gas has lower density and a lower viscosity. The volume of a gas will change with changes in temperature or pressure, as described by the ideal gas law. A gas also has the characteristic that it will diffuse readily, spreading apart in order to uniformly fill the space of any container. Plasma - A plasma is typically an ionized gas. Plasma is considered to be a distinct state of matter, apart from gases, because of its unique properties. ‘lonized’ refers to presence of one or more free electrons, which are not bound to an atom or molecule. The free electric charges make the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields. Plasma typically takes the form of neutral gas-like clouds (e.g. stars) or charged ion beams, but may also include dust and grains (called dusty plasmas). They are typically formed by heating and ionizing a gas, stripping electrons away from atoms, thereby enabling the positive and negative charges to move more freely. Changes between States Solids can melt and become liquids, and liquids can boil to become gases. Likewise, gases can condense to become liquids, and liquids can freeze to become solids. Sometimes solids can become gases without ever becoming liquids. This is called subliming. Module 2.1 Matter 1-29 ann anne s TS integrated Teainng System ‘© Gopynght 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 1-30 Module 2.1 Matter TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2011cop’ Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 2 Licence Category B1 and B2 Physics 2.2 MechanicsIntegrated Training System Omran asmaatonanen 9 Coy’ Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd, Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 ‘A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An abilty to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples, The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in corjunetion with physical laws describing the subject, The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject, The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 ‘A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics, describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 22 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS Integrated Training System covvenaa ye sine © Copynght 2011 mca scaIntegrated Training System r mh Table of Contents Module 2.2 Mechanics _ 7 Statics. __ 7 Mass, Force and Weight 7 Stress, Strain and Hooke’s Law. Materials Behaviour _ Nature and Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gas __ Pressure and Force Barometers Buoyancy Buoyancy 15 Kinetics Linear Motion Rotational Motion Periodic Motion — Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) Simple Machines and the Principle of Work Dynamics 113 Newton's Laws _ _ 113 Motion in a Circle 123 Friction 131 Work, Energy and Power 139 Momentum 151 Torque 163 The Gyroscope 74 Fluid Dynamics __ 175 The Atmosphere 175 Density and Specific Gravity 185 Compressibility in Fluids __193 Viscosity 195 Drag and Streamlining 197 Bemoull’s Principle 201 se dor suse Module 2.2 Mechanics 23 edged ‘TS Integrated Training System Sipe sce ore ‘© Copynght 2011Integrated Training System cy Module 2.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex Ill (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: ect EASA 66 Level Objective Reference | __ Bi Bz | Mechanics 2.2 _ Statics | 221 _ 2 | 1 Forces, moments and couples, representation |___as vectors _ Centre of gravit _ ~ Elements of theory of stress, strain and i elasticity: tension, compression, shear and torsion _ | _ Nature and properties of solid, fluid and gas { | Pressure and buoyancy in liquids (barometers) _ Kinetics 222 2 i Linear movement: uniform motion in a straight 7 line,motion under constant acceleration (motion under gravity); | Rotational movement: uniform circular motion | (centrifugal/centripetal forces); | Periodic motion: pendular movement; | Simple theory of vibration, harmonies and resonance; Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and ___ efficiency _ Dynamics 223 | I ~ (a)__ 2 | Mass — | | Force, inertia, work, power, energy (potential, | kinetic and total energy), heat, efficiency _ 7 — (b) 2 Momentum, conservation of momentum ~ Impulse _ ‘Gyroscopic principles — Friction: nature and effects, coefficient of friction (rolling resistance) _ Fluid dynamics 224 @) 2 2 Specific gravity and density 1 [ © 2 i | Viscosity, fluid resistance, effects of | streamlining; _ 24 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS Integrated Training System ‘erenad ye stoner © Copyright 2011 coma forceEffects of compressibility on fluids Static, dynamic and total pressure: ___Bernoull’s Theorem, venturi Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-5 ‘TTS integrated Training Systom ‘© Copyright 2011raining System Intentionally Blank 26 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2011Integrated Training System oa Module 2.2 Mechanics Statics Mass, Force and Weight Mass In physics. the term for what we have up to now referred to as the amount of substance or matter is “mass”. A natural unit for mass is the mass of a proton or neutron. This unit has a special name, the “atomic mass unit” (amu). This unit is useful in those sciences which deal with atomic and nuclear matter. In measuring the mass of objects which we encounter daily, this unit is much too small and therefore very inconvenient. For example, the mass of a bowling ball expressed in amu’s would be about 4,390,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. One kilogram equals 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amu. Since one amu is the mass of a proton or neutron we know immediately that a kilogram of anything has this combined number of protons and neutrons contained in it, The kilogram is the SI unit of mass. In the English system, the standard unit of mass is the slug. The conversion is: 1 slug = 14.59 kg = 8,789,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amu We will use the conveniently sized units, the slug in the English system and the kilogram in the metric system, for all of the problems that we will do in this course. Note that the above conversion, 1 slug = 14.59 kilogram, is listed with your conversion factors in the table of conversion factors (Table 1-1) Force The physicist uses the word “force” to describe any push or pull. A force is one kind of vector. A vector is a quantity that has both size and direction. A force has a certain magnitude or size. Also, a force is always in a certain direction. To completely describe a force, it is necessary to specify both the size of the push or pull and its direction. The units in which force are measured are the pound (Ib.) in the English system and the Newton (N) in the metric system. The Newton is named for Sir Isaac Newton, a famous British physicist who lived in the 17th century. The relationship between the metric and English units is given by the conversion factor: 1 Ib. = 4.448 N es andr daeneweia Module 2.2 Mechanics 27 Srenedby no eaters TTS integrated Training System Stages dcr Dcomgnt oT!Integrated Training System Weight A weight is one kind of force. It is defined as the gravitational pull of the earth on a given body. The direction of this force is toward the geometrical centre of the earth. Distinction between Mass and Weight The physicist very carefully distinguishes between “mass” and “weight”. As we have seen, mass is the quantity of matter, determined by the number of protons and neutrons in the body, and weight is a measure of the gravitational pull of the earth on this quantity of matter. it may seem that this is an unimportant distinction. However, there is one important difference. The mass of an object is the same wherever this object is in the universe. The mass of a stone is the same if the stone is on the earth, on Mars, in a space ship, or some place in the Milky Way Galaxy. If the stone is not on the earth but is in a space station orbiting the earth some distance from the earth’s surface, the weight of this stone is different from its weight on the earth's surface. If the stone is on the planet Mars, we speak cf its “weight on Mars’, the gravitational pull of Mars on the stone. ‘As you have probably figured out, the greater the mass of an object on the surface of the earth, the greater is the weight of this object. These two quantities are approximately proportional to each other as long as the body remains on the surface of the earth. The word “approximately” in the previous sentence refers to the fact that the pull of the earth on a body of a given mass. varies slightly with the position of the body on the earth’s surface. For example, a body that weighs 57.3 Ibs. at the North Pole would weigh 57.0 Ibs. at a place on the equator. This occurs because a body at either pole is slightly closer to the centre of the earth than it is at the equator. Thus, the pull of the earth on the body is greater at the poles and slightly smaller at other places on the earth. However, we usually neglect this slight difference. Physicists and engineers measure masses of bodies in slugs or kilograms and weights in pounds or Newtons. The equation relating mass and weight is: w=mg In this equation, g has a definite numerical value. We will use the following relations: There is a great source of confusion in British marketing practices. For example, we often see on a packet of sugar the information regarding the contents: 1kg or 2.2 Ibs We note that 2.2 Ibs. equals 1 kg. We have just leamed that 2.2 Ibs. is the weight of the sugar and that 1 kg is the mass of the sugar. In other words, British packaging practices list the weight of the product if we deal with the English system and list the mass of the product if we are in the metric system. 28 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS Intograted Training System cemesty essere ©Copyright 2011 ‘insape gerwy Integrated Training System Desi oni For example, suppose the weight of a piece of cheese is marked 32 oz. and we wish to know the number of grams. First we convert the weight in ounces to 2 Ibs. Then we convert from pounds to Newtons 4.448 N W =2 Ibs =8.90 N Next, we use the relation: Ww w=mg or m=— g Therefore, we write: ———— = 0.908 kg = 908 grams 9g Note that we can convert from pounds to Newtons since both are units of weight and we can convert from kilograms to slugs since both are units of mass. However, if we want to find a mass if we know a weight or a weight if we know a mass we must use the equation: m=wig or = w=mg In summary, let us note that mass is a measure of the quantity of matter - ultimately, a measure of the number of protons and neutrons in the body and weight is the force with which the earth pulls on a body. These are related but not identical concepts. The units of mass are slugs and kilograms. The units of weight are pounds and Newtons. A mass can be changed from slugs to kilograms and vice versa. A weight can be changed from Newtons to pounds or vice versa. However, one cannot say that one pound equals 454 grams. The only correct statement is that a body having a weight of one pound has a mass of 454 grams. The equation relating mass and weight is: w=mg or Ww g Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-9 TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System fin aseoszaton wiht Intentionally Blank 2-10 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011, é 4 xIntegrated Training System Problems 1. What is the mass of a body having a weight of 45 N? 2. What is the weight of a body having a mass of 23 kg? 3. What is the mass of a body having a weight of 350 Ibs.? 4 What is the weight of a body having a mass of 23.6 slugs? 5 What is the weight (in Ibs.) of the corn flakes in a box where the mass is listed as 680 g? 6. What is the mass in grams of 2.5 Ibs. of bologna? eantransone Module 2.2 Mechanics 211 Feorrareyrad TIS Integrated Training System Seance ‘© Copyright 2071Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 212 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS Integrated Training System © Copyrignt 2011fue) Integrated Traini Answers All answers are to 3 significant figures 4.59 kg 225N 10.9 slugs 755 Ibs. 1.45 Ibs. 11409 eoaroena Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-43 ‘TTS integrated Training Syctom ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System 214 TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2011 Intentionally Blank Module 2.2 Mechanicsp16-com question p (ay Integrated Training System Stress, Strain and Hooke’s Law Introduction Structural integrity is a major factor in aircraft design and construction. No production aeroplane leaves the ground before undergoing extensive analysis of how it will fly, the stresses it will tolerate and its maximum safe capability Every aircraft is subject to structural stress. Stress acts on an aeroplane whether on the ground or in flight. Stress is defined as a load applied to a unit area of material. Stress produces a deflection or deformation in the material called strain. Stress is always accompanied by strain Current production general aviation aircraft are constructed of various materials, the primary being aluminium alloys. Rivets, bolts, screws and special bonding adhesives are used to hold the sheet metal in place. Regardless of the method of attachment of the material, every part of the fuselage must carry a load, or resist a stress placed on it. Design of interior supporting and forming pieces, and the outside metal skin all have a role to play in assuring an overall safe structure capable of withstanding expected loads and stresses. The stress a particular part must withstand is carefully calculated by engineers. Also, the material a part is made from is extremely important and is selected by designers based on its known properties. Aluminium alloy is the primary material for the exterior skin on modem aircraft. This material possesses a good strength to weight ratio, is easy to form, resists corrosion, and is relatively inexpensive. Types of Structural Stress The five basie structural stresses to which aircraft are subject are: Tension Compression Torsion Shear Bending geen While there are many other ways to describe the actual stresses which an aircraft undergoes in normal (or abnormal) operation, they are special arrangements of these basic ones. Tension - is the stress acting against another force that is trying to pull something apart. For example, while in straight and level flight the engine power and propeller are pulling the aeroplane forward. The wings, tail section and fuselage, however, resist that movement because of the airflow around them. The result is a stretching effect on the airframe. Bracing wires in an aircraft are usually in tension. Compression -is a squeezing or crushing force that tries to make parts smaller. Anti- compression design resists an inward or crushing force applied to a piece or assembly. Aircraft wings are subjected to compression stresses. The ability of a material to meet compression requirements is measured in pounds per square inch (PSI). Module 2.2 Mechanics 2415 ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System eaten oY oy’ Torsion - is a twisting force. Because aluminium is used almost exclusively for the outside, and, toa large extent, inside fabrication of parts and covering, its tensile strength (capability of being stretched) under torsion is very important. Tensile strength refers to the measure of strength in pounds per square inch (PSI) of the metal. Torque (also a twisting force) works against torsion. The torsional strength of a material is its ability to resist torque. While in flight, the engine power and propeller twist the forward fuselage. The force, however, is resisted by the assemblies of the fuselage. The airframe is subjected to variable torsional stresses during turns and other manoeuvres. Shear - stress tends to slide one piece of material over another. Consider the aircraft fuselage. The aluminium skin panels are riveted to one another. Shear forces try to make the rivets fail under flight loads; therefore, selection of rivets with adequate shear resistance is critical. Bolts and other fasteners are often loaded in shear, an example being bolts that fasten the wing to the spar or carry-through structure. Although other forces may also be present, shear forces try to rip the bolt in two. Generally, shear strength is less than tensile or compressive strength in a particular material Bending - is a combination of two forces, compression and tension. During bending stress, the material on the inside of the bend is compressed and the outside material is stretched in tension. An example of this is the G-loading an aeroplane structure experiences during manoeuvring. During an abrupt pull-up, the aeroplane's wing spars, wing skin and fuselage undergo positive loading and the upper surfaces are subject to compression, while the lower wing skin experiences tension loads. There are many other areas of the airframe structure that experience bending forces during normal flight. An aircraft structure in flight is subjected to many and varying stresses due to the varying loads that may be imposed. The designer's problem is trying to anticipate the possible stresses that the structure will have to endure, and to build it sufficiently strong to withstand these. The problem is complicated by the fact that an aeroplane structure must be light as well as strong. Stress, Strain and Young’s Modulus What is known as Axial (or Normal) Stress, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the member divided by the cross sectional area. Or Force ‘Area Stress = (units tbvin? or Nim?) In figure 2-1, a solid rod of length L, is under simple tension due to force F, as shown. If we divide that axial force, F, by the cross sectional area of the rod (A), this would be the axial stress in the member. Axial stress is the equivalent of pressure in a gas or liquid, As you remember, pressure is the force/unit area. So axial stress is really the ‘pressure’ in a solid member. Now the question becomes, how much ‘pressure’ can a material bear before it fails. 2-16 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS integrated Training System onset sts © Copyright 2011 one hemaIntegrated Training System Axial Stress = FA (units = Db/in? or Nim? y cross sectional area 4 Force perpendicular to area Figure 2.1: Tensile Stress In fact, if we look at a metal rod in simple tension as shown in figure 2.1, we see that there will be an elongation (or deformation) due to the tension. If we then graph the tension (force) verses the deformation we obtain a result as shown in figure 2.2. | — Plastic Region —— | F oy (elastic) / Proportional Limit — Fainure Point necking down AL @eformation) (in) Figure 2.2: Force-Extension diagram In figure 2.2, we see that, if our metal rod is tested by increasing the tension in the rod, the deformation increases. In the first region the deformation increases in proportion to the force. That is, if the amount of force is doubled, the amount of deformation is doubled. This is a form of Hooke's Law and could be written this way: Fk (deformation), where k is a constant depending on the material (and is sometimes called the spring constant). After enough force has been applied the material enters the plastic region - where the force and the deformation are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces a large amount of deformation. In this region, the rod often begins to 'neck down’, that is, the diameter becomes smaller as the rod is about to fail. Finally the rod actually breaks. The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In Module 2.2 Mechanics 247 TTS integrated Training System (page? ce cager ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System (ay actuality, these two points are not quite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which Permanent deformation occurs, that is, after the elastic limit, if the force is taken off the sample, it will not return to its original size and shape, permanent deformation has occurred. The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer directly proportional to the applied force (Hooke's Law no longer holds). Although these two points are slightly different, we will treat them as the same in this course. Next, rather than examining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead graph the axial stress verses the axial strain (figure 2-2). We have defined the axial stress earlier, The axial strain is defined as the fractional change in length or Strain = (deformation of member) divided by the (original length of member) Strain = AL Figure 2.3: Axial force in a member of length Lo causing deformation (extension) of AL We may write: i in - Deformation Strain = orormation _ Original Length i where Lo is the original length of the member. Strain has no units - since its length divided by length, however it is sometimes expressed as ‘invin (or inches per inch)’ in some texts. As we see from figure 2.4, the Stress verses Strain graph has the same shape and regions as the force verses deformation graph in figure 2.2. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is directly proportional to strain, the ratio of stress/strain will be a constant (and actually equal to the slope of the linear portion of the graph). 2-18 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS integrated Tang Sytem sensi S copy a0" sa aneIntegrated Training System This constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually symbolized by an E or Y. We will use E for Young's modulus. We may now write Stress ; lus (E Young's Modulus (E) = == (This is another form of Hooke’s Law.) Untireate — Plastic Regon —— Siressiiau| acim 7 (dastie) oC Proportional Limt Faiure Point ‘Stress / Buin? Linear (elastic) Region € Strain Figure 2.4: Stress-Strain graph The value of Young's modulus - which is a measure of the amount of force needed to produce a unit deformation - depends on the material. Young's Modulus for Steel is 30 x 10° Ib/in?, for Aluminium E = 10 x 10° Ib/in®, and for Brass E = 15 x 10° Ib/in®. To summarize our stress/strain/Hooke's Law relationships up to this point, we have: Force Stress = (units tbvin? or N/m?) ‘Area Deformation Original Length Stress Young's Modulus = 2 Strain irene Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-19 pemoay st TTS Integrated Training System Sieape cme ace ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Related Definitions Bulk Modulus - The bulk modulus gives the change in volume of a solid substance as the pressure on it is changed, The formula for bulk modulus is very similar to that for Young's Modulus: r Pressure A Vy, Bulk Modulus (B) = —————-——_ — =Pressure —* ©) Volametic Strain” BV/ ue TV ‘Some examples of Bulk Modulus for different materials are given on the next page. Poisson’s Ratio - As a member is stressed in tension, its length increases (axial strain) and its width decreases (transverse strain). Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to the axial strain in a stressed member. Cantilever - Figure 2.5 illustrates a cantilever structure. The beam is under bending stress. (which is greatest at the root end) and shear stress (which is constant along the beam). LOAD Figure 2.5: A cantilever structure 2-20 Module 2.2 Mechanics ‘TTS integrated Training System onvsrecey he store © Copyright 2011 ‘orpage? oe eanwy Integrated Training System be oc with hs Materials Behaviour Elastic - Material deforms under stress but returns to its original size and shape when the stress is released. There is no permanent deformation. Some elastic strain, like in a rubber band, can be large, but in metals it is usually small. Brittle - Material deforms by fracturing. Glass is typically brittle. Ductile - Material deforms without breaking. Metals and most plastics are ductile. Viscous - Materials that deform steadily under stress. Purely viscous materials like liquids deform under even the smallest stress. Even metals may behave like viscous materials under high temperature and pressure. This is known as creep and affects plastics far more than metals. Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-21 ‘moby re Sart ‘TTS Integrated Training System nae ome crap ‘© Copyright 2011imegrated Training System Ey YOUNG MODULUS, FE ygpuLus, 8 MATERIAL (LBAN.*) (BIN? econ cusveumr “Sn Bross 13x 108 asx 10° [ waTenat qaam) apm’) _| Copper 16 « 10° 17x 108 ‘Aluminum 1.9 x10" 24 x 108 Glass 7.8 x 10° 52x 10° Brass 5.5 x 10° 6.6 x 10° Won 13 x 108 1.45 x 10° Copper 2.3 x 108 49x 10" Steel 29 x 10° 23 « 10° Iron 24 «108 Ethyl Alcohol 0.16 x 10° Annealed Steel = 3.6 x 10% ou 0.25 x 108 Spring Stee! 6.0 « 10" Water ot = 108 Table 2.2: Elastic Limit and Ultimate Stress Mercury 40x 108 of some common materials Table 2.1: Young's Modulus and Bulk Modulus of some common materials EXAMPLE: The elastic limit for copper is 2.3 x 10° Ib/in® and the ultimate strength is 4.9 x 10* Ib/in?. Suppose that a copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in’. A force of 11,500 bs. applied longitudinally to this rod would just be within the elastic limit. A force of 12,000 Ibs. would deform the rod in such a way that it would not return to it original size after the force is removed. A force of 24,500 Ibs. would cause the rod to rupture. 2-22 Module 2.2 Mechanics TTS intograoa Teanng System eaetersemaee Scopyignt 2011 sant aaacw Integrated Training System 4 : et Problems 1. A steel bolt with a cross-sectional area of 0.1 in® and a length of 6.0” is subjected to a force of 580 Ibs. What is the increase in length of the bolt? (Hint: Find the stress. Then use Young's Modulus of steel to find the strain. From the strain find the extension) 2. An iron body of volume 145 in? is subjected to a pressure of 500 Ib/in?. What is the decrease in volume of this body? 3. A copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.04 in® and a length of 24”. What longitudinal force must be applied to cause this rod to stretch by 0.0024 in? 4. An aluminium brace inside a wing of a plane has a cross-sectional area of 0.2 in®. What is the greatest longitudinal force that can be applied to the brace without causing the brace to be permanently deformed? eantr aus Module 2.2 Mechanics 2:23 ‘vero ty so tart ‘TTS Integrated Training System Seeeahe e Deamen ea!