Lesson 6.

Fundamentals and Methods of

Leveling and Instrumentation
Lesson 6.1
Learning Outcomes
o Explain the principles of leveling as well as its
basic terms
o Enumerate at least five (5) leveling equipment
and its accessories
Leveling

How high is the

tourist spot? △h

Leveling is the process of measuring the difference in elevation (vertical

distance) between two or more points below, on or above the ground.
 Leveling
According to science
Leveling is a branch of surveying which
deals with the measurement of relative
heights of different points on, above or
below the surface of the earth.Thus in
leveling, the measurements (elevations)
are taken in the vertical plane.

Simple Definition
Leveling is the name given to the process of
measuring the difference in elevation (vertical
distance) between two or more points below, on
or above the ground.
 Leveling Applications
Leveling is a vital operation to provide necessary data in engineering design and
construction, and production of topographic maps.

Leveling results are used to:

1. Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers , water supply systems;

2. Layout construction projects according to planned elevations;

3. Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;

4. Investigate drainage characteristics of an area

5. Develop maps showing general ground configurations

Definition of Terms Earth’s Surface

B
Vertical line is a line from the surface of the
earth to the earth’s center. It is also referred
to as plumb line or a line of gravity.
A

Level Surface is a curved surface which

Vertical Line
C
is at any point perpendicular to the
direction of gravity or the plumb line.

Level line is a curved line in a level

surface all points of which are normal to
the direction of gravity and equidistant
from the center of the earth.
Definition of Terms Earth’s Surface

Mean Sea Level (MSL) is an imaginary surface B

of the sea which is midway between high and Elev of B (+)

low tides. It is taken as the reference surface to

⧍hA-B
Elev of
which most ground elevations are referred. A
C (-)
⧍hB-C
⧍hA-C

Vertical Line
A datum is any reference surface to which C

elevations of points are referred. The most

common used datum is the Mean Sea
Level(MSL).

Difference in Elevation between two points

is the vertical distance between the two level
surfaces in which the points lie.
Definition of Terms Earth’s Surface

B Horizontal Line Thru B

Horizontal surface is a plane that is tangent
Elev of B (+)
to a level surface at a particular point. It is
perpendicular to the plumb line at the same ⧍hA-B
A Elev of
C (-)
point. ⧍hB-C
⧍hA-C

Vertical Line
C

Horizontal line is a straight line in a horizontal

plane which is tangent to a level line at one
point. This line is perpendicular to the direction
of gravity at the point of tangency.
Types of Levels
Basic instruments used in leveling include:
1. Spirit Level
2. Hand Level
3. Alidade
4. Transit
5. Theodolite
6. Aneroid Barometer
7. EDM Instruments
Leveling
The instruments used:
 Lesson 6.2

Differential Leveling
Learning Outcome:
▪Define the differential leveling
▪ Explain at least (1) practical application of differential leveling
▪Compute elevation from differential leveling data
Leveling
The objectives of which are:

1. Find the elevation of a given point with respect to the given

or assumed datum.

2. Establish a point at a given elevation with respect to the

given or assumed datum
 Differential Leveling

-is the process of determining the

difference in elevation between two or BS
FS
more points some distant apart.
BM1 BS
FS
TP
- it requires series of set-ups of the
instrument along a general route and for
each set-up, a rod reading back to the BM1 BM2
point of known elevation and forward to
the point of unknown elevation are taken.

BM2
Definition of Terms Direction of Leveling

1, Bench Mark (BM)- is a fixed point of

reference whose elevation is either known
or assumed.
BS
FS

2. Backsight (BS) is a reading taken on rod BM1 BS

FS
held on a point of known or assumed TP
Elev BM1
elevation. It is a measure of the vertical (known) HI
BM2
distance from the established line of sight to the Elev BM2
(To be
point sighted. Frequently referred to as the plus Determined)
Reference Datum
(+) sights. (Mean Sea Level)
Definition of Terms Direction of Leveling

3. Foresight (FS) is a reading taken on a rod

held on point whose elevation is to be
determined. It is the vertical distance from the
line of sight of the instrument to the point
observed. Often referred to as the minus (-) BS
FS
sights. BM1 BS
FS
TP
Elev BM1
(known) HI
BM2
Elev BM2
(To be
Determined)
Reference Datum
(Mean Sea Level)
Definition of Terms
4. Turning Point (TP) is an intervening point
between two bench marks upon which point
foresight and backsight rod readings are taken
to enable a leveling operation to continue. BS
FS
Sometimes referred to as the change point.
BM1 BS
FS
5. Height of Instrument (HI)- height of TP
Elev BM1
collimation, is the elevation of the line of (known) HI
BM2
sight of an instrument above or below a Elev BM2
(To be
selected reference datum. Determined)
Reference Datum
(Mean Sea Level)
Formula in Differential Leveling

BS
FS
BM1 BS
FS
Elev BM1 TP
(known)
HI BM2
Elev BM2
Reference Datum
(Mean Sea Level)
Differential Leveling Notes

STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION

BMa

TP1

TP2

BMb
Differential Leveling Notes

STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION

BMa HI 1
BS BMa Elev BMa
TP1 FS TP1 Elev TP1

TP2

BMb

*BS and FS= data gathered during fieldwork/survey

HI = computed values
Elevation= computed values except for Elev BMa
 Solution:
Example 1.
345.791 (Elev BM1 )
Complete the differential level notes shown + 1.256 (BS on BM1 )
below and perform the customary arithmetic 347.047 (HI1 )
check. - 1.886 (FS on TP1 )
345.161 (Elev TP1 )
STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION
+ 1.116 (BS on TP1 )
BM1 1.256 347.047 345.791 346.277 (HI2 )
TP1 1.116 346.277 1.886 345.161 - 1.527 (FS on TP2 )
344.750 (Elev TP2 )
TP2 1.228 345.978 1.527 344.750
+ 1.228 (BS on TP2 )
TP3 1.189 344.921 2.246 343.732 345.978 (HI3 )
BM2 2.017 342.904 - 2.246 (FS on TP3 )
343.732 (Elev TP3 )
+ 1.189 (BS on TP3 )
344.921 (HI4 )
- 2.017 (FS on BM2 )
342.904 (Elev BM2 )
 Solution:
Example 1.
Arithmetic Check:
Complete the differential level notes shown below Elev BM1 + ΣBS - ΣFS = Elev BM2
and perform the customary arithmetic check.

STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION
ΣBS = 1.256 + 1.116 + 1.228 + 1.189 = (+) 4.789
BM1 1.256 347.047 345.791
ΣFS = 1.886 + 1.527 + 2.246 + 2.017 = (-) 7.676
TP1 1.116 346.277 1.886 345.161
TP2 1.228 345.978 1.527 344.75
Elev BM2 = 345.791 + 4.789 – 7.676 = 342.904
TP3 1.189 344.921 2.246 343.732
BM2 2.017 342.904
(+) 4.789 (-) 7.676
(ΣBS) (ΣFS)
Example 2.
Prepare and complete the differential level notes for the information shown
in the accompanying illustration. Include the customary arithmetic check.
Example 2.

STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION
BMa 0.68 125.45
TP1 0.98 3.75
TP2 3.73 3.52
TP3 3.90 1.64
BMb 0.35
 Solution:
Example 2.
125.45 (Elev BMa)
+ 0.68 (BS on BMa)
126.13 (HI1)
- 3.75 (FS on TP1 )
122.38 (Elev TP1 )
+ 0.98 (BS on TP1 )
123.36 (HI2 )
- 3.52 (FS on TP2 )
119.84 (Elev TP2 )
+ 3.73 (BS on TP2 )
STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION
123.57 (HI3)
BMa 0.68 126.13 125.45 - 1.64 (FS on TP3 )
TP1 0.98 123.36 3.75 122.38 121.93 (Elev TP3 )
TP2 3.73 3.52 + 3.90 (BS on TP3 )
123.57 119.84
125.83 (HI4 )
TP3 3.90 125.83 1.64 121.93 - 0.35 (FS on BMb)
BMb 0.35 125.48 125.48 (Elev BMb )
 Solution:
Example 2.
Arithmetic Check:

Elev BMa + ΣBS - ΣFS = Elev BMb

ΣBS = 0.68 + 0.98 + 3.73 + 3.90 = (+) 9.29

ΣFS = 3.75 + 3.52 + 1.64 + 0.35 = (-) 9.26

STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION
Elev BMb = 125.45 + 9.29 – 9.26 = 125.48
BMa 0.68 126.13 125.45
TP1 0.98 123.36 3.75 122.38
TP2 3.73 123.57 3.52 119.84
TP3 3.90 125.83 1.64 121.93
BMb 0.35 125.48
Double-Rodded Leveling
Double-rodded differential leveling is a method of determining
differences in elevation between points by employing two level
routes simultaneously.
BMb

TP1H
HI2
TP2H TP3H HI4
HI1

TP1L
TP2L
TP3L
HI3
BMa
 STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION
BM1 1.768 230.14 228.372
BM1 1.768 230.14 228.372
TP1H 2.732 230.735 2.137 228.003
TP1L 3.079 229.731 3.488 226.652
TP2H 2.366 231.427 1.674 229.061
TP2L 3.024 230.426 2.329 227.402
TP3H 1.534 232.015 0.946 230.481
TP3L 2.158 231.142 1.442 228.984

Double-Rodded Leveling BM2 2.805 229.21

BM2 2.805 228.337
 Three-Wire Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling is a method of determining differences in elevation wherein three
horizontal hairs (threads) are read and recorded rather than from a single horizontal hair.

Upper Stadia Hair

Horizontal Cross Hair

Lower Stadia Hair

Three-Wire Leveling Where:

m = Mean of three-hair readings

m = (a + b + c)/3
Three-Wire Leveling Where:

a = Upper stadia hair reading

b = Lower stadia hair reading

c = Horizontal cross-hair reading or

rod reading on P

s = Stadia intercept or the

difference between the upper
stadia hair reading and lower stadia
hair reading

s=a-b
Three-Wire Leveling Where:

HD = Horizontal distance from the

level to the rod held at P

HD = Ks + C
K = Stadia Interval Factor

C = Instrument Constant

s = Stadia intercept or the

Elev of BM2 = HI - m difference between the upper
stadia hair reading and lower stadia
hair reading
Three-Wire Leveling Where:

Elev of BM2 = Unknown Elevation of

Station BM2

Elev of BM2 = HI - m

HI = Height of the line of sight

above datum or mean sea level

m = Mean of three-hair readings

Three-Wire Leveling BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
Complete the level notes 1.152
shown below and perform the BM1 0.935 444.242
0.718
customary arithmetic check. 2.784 1.117
TP1 2.42 0.899
2.057 0.682
1.713 1.9
TP2 1.44 1.537
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450
TP3 2.094 1.177
1.599 0.904
0.913 2.21
TP4 0.73 1.714
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41
1.227
 BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV Solution:
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.152
a. Calculate Mean Hair Readings (m):
BM1 0.935 0.935 444.242
0.718 m = (a + b + c)/3
2.784 1.117 Backsights:
TP1 2.42 2.420 0.899
2.057 0.682 m(BM1) = (1.152 + 0.935 + 0.718) /3 = 0.935
1.713 1.9
TP2 1.44 1.440 1.537 m(TP1) = (2.784 + 2.420 + 2.057) /3 = 2.420
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450 m(TP2) = (1.713 + 1.440 + 1.166) /3 = 1.440
TP3 2.094 2.095 1.177
1.599 0.904 m(TP3) = (2.591 + 2.094 + 1.599) /3 = 2.095
0.913 2.21
TP4 0.73 0.730 1.714 m(TP4) = (0.913 + 0.730 + 0.547) /3 = 0.730
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41
1.227
 BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV Solution:
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.152
a. Calculate Mean Hair Readings (m):
BM1 0.935 0.935 444.242
0.718 m = (a + b + c)/3
2.784 1.117 Foresights:
TP1 2.42 2.420 0.899 0.899
2.057 0.682 m(TP1) = (1.117 + 0.899 +0.682) /3 = 0.899
1.713 1.9
TP2 1.44 1.440 1.537 1.536 m(TP2) = (1.900 +1.537 +1.172) /3 = 1.536
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450 m(TP3) = (1.450 + 1.177 + 0.940) /3 = 1.177
TP3 2.094 2.095 1.177 1.177
1.599 0.904 m(TP4) = (2.210 + 1.741 + 1.218) /3 = 1.714
0.913 2.21
TP4 0.73 0.730 1.714 1.714 m(BM2) = (1.593 + 1.410 + 1.227) /3 = 1.410
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41 1.410
1.227
 BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV Solution:
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.152
b. Calculate Stadia Intercept (s):
BM1 0.935 0.935 0.434 444.242
0.718 s=a-b
2.784 1.117 Backsights:
TP1 2.42 2.420 0.727 0.899 0.899
2.057 0.682 m(BM1) = 1.152 – 0.718 = 0.434
1.713 1.9
TP2 1.44 1.440 0.547 1.537 1.536 m(TP1) = 2.784 – 2.057 = 0.727
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450 m(TP2) = 1.713 – 1.166= 0.547
TP3 2.094 2.095 0.992 1.177 1.177
1.599 0.904 m(TP3) = 2.591 – 1.599 = 0.992
0.913 2.21
TP4 0.73 0.730 0.366 1.714 1.714 m(TP4) = 0.913 – 0.547= 0.366
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41 1.410
1.227
 BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV Solution:
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.152
b. Calculate Stadia Intercept (s):
BM1 0.935 0.935 0.434 444.242
0.718 s=a-b
2.784 1.117 Foresights:
TP1 2.42 2.420 0.727 0.899 0.899 0.435
2.057 0.682 m(TP1) = 1.117 + 0.682 = 0.435
1.713 1.900
TP2 1.44 1.440 0.547 1.537 1.536 0.728 m(TP2) = 1.900 + 1.172= 0.728
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450 m(TP3) = 1.450 – 0.904 = 0.546
TP3 2.094 2.095 0.992 1.177 1.177 0.546
1.599 0.904 m(TP4) = 2.210 – 1.218 = 0.992
0.913 2.21
TP4 0.73 0.730 0.366 1.714 1.714 0.992 m(BM2) = 1.593 – 1.227 = 0.366
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41 1.410 0.366
1.227
 BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV Solution:
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.152
c. Calculate HI’s and Elevations
BM1 0.935 0.935 0.434 445.177 444.242
0.718
2.784 1.117
HI = Elev Bma + mBS
TP1 2.42 2.420 0.727 446.698 0.899 0.899 0.435 444.278
2.057 0.682 Elev of TP1 = HI – mFS
1.713 1.900
TP2 1.44 1.440 0.547 446.602 1.537 1.536 0.728 445.162
Sample Computation:
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450
TP3 2.094 2.095 0.992 447.520 1.177 1.177 0.546 445.425 HI = 444.242 + 0.935 = 445.177
1.599 0.904
0.913 2.21 Elev TP1 = 445.177 – 0.899 = 444.278
TP4 0.73 0.730 0.366 446.536 1.714 1.714 0.992 445.806
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41 1.410 0.366 445.126
1.227
 BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV Solution:
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.152 d. Tabulated Solution
BM1 0.935 0.935 0.434 445.177 444.242
0.718
2.784 1.117
TP1 2.42 2.420 0.727 446.698 0.899 0.899 0.435 444.278
2.057 0.682
1.713 1.900
TP2 1.44 1.440 0.547 446.602 1.537 1.536 0.728 445.162
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450
TP3 2.094 2.095 0.992 447.520 1.177 1.177 0.546 445.425
1.599 0.904
0.913 2.21
TP4 0.73 0.730 0.366 446.536 1.714 1.714 0.992 445.806
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41 1.410 0.366 445.126
1.227
 BACKSIGHT HI FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HAIR MEAN ELEV Solution:
S S
RDGS RDG RDGS RDG
1.152 e. Arithmetic Check:
BM1 0.935 0.935 0.434 445.177 444.242
0.718 Elev BM1 + ΣBS - ΣFS = Elev BM2
2.784 1.117
TP1 2.42 2.420 0.727 446.698 0.899 0.899 0.435 444.278
2.057 0.682 ΣBSm = +7.620
1.713 1.900
TP2 1.44 1.440 0.547 446.602 1.537 1.536 0.728 445.162
ΣFSm = - 6.736
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450 Elev BM2 = 444.242+7.620–6.736 = 445.126
TP3 2.094 2.095 0.992 447.520 1.177 1.177 0.546 445.425
1.599 0.904
0.913 2.21
TP4 0.73 0.730 0.366 446.536 1.714 1.714 0.992 445.806
0.547 1.218
1.593
BM2 1.41 1.410 0.366 445.126
1.227
 Profile Leveling
Learning Outcomes:
▪ Discuss what is profile leveling
▪ Explain the purpose of conducting profile leveling
▪ Compute profile leveling data and produce profiles
Profile Leveling
- The process of determining differences
in elevation along a fixed line at
designated short measured intervals. It is
executed to provide data from which a
vertical section of the ground surface can
be plotted.
-A profile is necessary for the design and
construction of roads, railroads, canals,
culverts, bridges, sewer lines and etc.
Definition of Terms
1. Profile – is a curved line which
graphically portrays the intersection of a
vertical plane with the surface of the
earth. It depicts ground elevations of
selected critical points along a surveyed
line and the horizontal distances between
these points.
Definition of Terms 2+00

2. Stationing – A numerical designation 1+80

given in terms of horizontal distance any
point along a profile line is away from the 1+60
starting point.
1+40

0+80 1+20
0+60 1+00
0+40

0+20

0+00 BS
Definition of Terms 2+00

3. Intermediate Foresights- or ground 1+80

rod readings, are taken along the
centerline of the proposed project to 1+60
provide an accurate representation of the
ground surface. IFS are observed at 1+40
regular intervals and at points where
sudden change in elevation occurs. 0+80 1+20
0+60 1+00
0+40

0+20

0+00 BS
Definition of Terms 2+00

4. Full Stations – are points which are 1+80

established along the profile level route at
uniformly measured distances. 1+60

1+40

0+80 1+20
0+60 1+00
0+40

0+20

0+00 BS
Definition of Terms 2+00

5. Plus Stations - any other intermediate 1+80

point established along a profile level
route which is not designated as a full 1+60
station. These points are taken at breaks
in the ground surface slope and at critical 1+40
points such as intended location of
culverts, bridges, and other structures. 0+80 1+20
0+60 1+00
0+40

0+20

0+00 BS
Definition of Terms
6. Vertical Exaggeration - is a process of
drawing the vertical scale for profile much
larger than the horizontal scale in order to
accentuate the differences in elevation.
Definition of Terms
7. Profile Paper – a special heavy grade
graphing paper used for plotting profiles.
The paper has horizontal and vertical
lines drawn in green, blue, or orange
which are spaced accordingly to
represent certain distances to the
horizontal and vertical scales.
Profile Level Notes 2+00
STATION BS HI FS IFS ELEV
1+80
0+00
1+60
+20
+40 1+40
+60
+80 0+80 1+20
0+60 1+00
1+00 0+40
+20
+40 0+20
+60
+80 0+00 BS
2+00
 Solution:
Example:
Compute the following set of profile
leveling notes and show the customary
arithmetic check.

STATION BS HI FS IFS ELEV Sample Computation:

BM1 0.95 126.45 125.50 125.50 + 0.95 = 126.45 (HI1 )

0+00 3.00 123.45 126.45 - 3.00 = 123.45 (Elev 0+00)
+30 2.55 123.90 126.45 - 2.55 = 123.90 (Elev 0+30)
+70 2.25 124.20 126.45 - 2.25 = 124.20 (Elev 0+70)
TP1 1.55 125.52 2.48 123.97 126.45 – 2.48 = 123.97 (Elev TP1)
1+00 2.17 123.35
+40 1.98 123.54
+70 1.74 123.78
BM2 1.59 123.93
 Solution:
Example: Arithmetic Check:
Compute the following set of profile Elev BM1 + ΣBS - ΣFS = Elev BM2
leveling notes and show the customary
arithmetic check.

STATION BS HI FS IFS ELEV ΣBS = 0.95 + 1.55= (+) 2.5

BM1 0.95 126.45 125.50 ΣFS = 2.48+1.59 = (-) 4.07

0+00 3.00 123.45
+30 2.55 123.90
+70 2.25 124.20 Elev BM2 = 125.50 + 2.50 – 4.07 = 123.93
TP1 1.55 125.52 2.48 123.97
1+00 2.17 123.35
+40 1.98 123.54
+70 1.74 123.78
BM2 1.59 123.93
 Solution:
Example2: a. Determine the station of this turning
point.
A turning point along a profile level route
measures 126.44 m beyond station
126.44
8+24.50. 8+24.50 TP

a. Determine the station of this turning

point. dsta = 8+24.50 = 824.50 m
b. Determine the stationing of the turning
dTP = 126.44 m
point if it is instead located 83.45m
before the given reference station. D = dsta + dTP = 824.50 +126.44 = 950.94 m
c.Determine the distance between station
33+45.02 and station 26+62.75. Stationing of TP = 9+50.94
 Solution:
Example2: b. Determine the stationing of the
turning point if it is instead located
A turning point along a profile level route 83.45m before the given reference
measures 126.44 m beyond station station.
8+24.50. 83.45 m
TP 8+24.50
a. Determine the station of this turning
point. dsta = 8+24.50 = 824.50 m
b. Determine the stationing of the turning
dTP = 83.45 m
point if it is instead located 83.45m
before the given reference station. D = dsta - dTP = 824.50 – 83.45 = 741.05 m
c.Determine the distance between station
33+45.02 and station 26+62.75. Stationing of TP = 7+41.05
 Solution:
Example2: c. Determine the distance between
station 33+45.02 and station
A turning point along a profile level route 26+62.75.
measures 126.44 m beyond station
???
8+24.50.
26+62.75 33+45.02
a. Determine the station of this turning
point. dsta1 = 26+62.75 = 2662.75 m
b. Determine the stationing of the turning
dsta2 = 33+45.02 = 3345.02 m
point if it is instead located 83.45m
before the given reference station. D = dsta1 – dsta2 = 3345.02 – 2662.75 = 682.27 m
c.Determine the distance between station
33+45.02 and station 26+62.75. Dist between two stations= 682.27 m
Sources of Error in Leveling
Learning Outcome:

▪ Discuss the sources of errors in leveling and how they can

be removed or eliminated.
 Sources of Error in Leveling

Instrumental Errors Personal Errors Natural Errors

a. Instrument Out of Adjustment a. Bubble Not Centered a. Curvature of the Earth
b. Rod Not Standard Length b. Parallax b. Atmospheric Refraction
c. Defective Tripod c. Faulty Rod Readings c. Temperature Variations
d. Rod Not Held Plumb d. Wind
e. Incorrect Setting of Target e. Settling of the Instrument
f. Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances f. Faulty Turning Points
 Common Mistakes in Leveling

1. Misreading the rod

2. Incorrect Recording

3. Erroneous Computations

4. Rod Not Fully Extended

5. Moving Turning Points

Precautions in Leveling
1. The rod should be held vertically when reading is taken.

2. When taking readings, always make sure that the bubble of the level tube is
centered.

3. When using a folding staff, always check that each section of the staff is drawn
out to its full extent when extended and the spring clip is secured.

4. To reduce the effect of the instrumental errors, the length of the BS and the FS
should be set approximately equal.

5. The instrument should be securely clamped to the tripod. The tripod should be
firmly set up on the ground.
Precautions in Leveling
6. The instrumentman should not grip the tripod or rest his hands on it while taking
readings.

7. To ensure that the reading is recorded correctly, recorder should always read back
the recorded observation.

8. Avoid the mistake of reading the units (meters, feet, cm and dm) incorrectly.
Reading Assignment:
• Principles of EDM Slope Distance Reduction