EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G.

Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

MODULE 1 – FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

Open loop and closed loop control systems- Examples of automatic control systems - Transfer
function approach to feed back control systems – Effect of feedback
Control system components – Control applications of DC and AC servo motors, Tacho generator,
Synchro, Gyroscope and Stepper motor
Controllers - Types of controllers & Compensators - Transfer function and basic characteristics of
lag, lead and lag-lead phase compensators.

INTRODUCTION

Control systems are an integral part of modern society. They find applications in manufacturing process
industries, satellites, guides missiles, navigation, biomedical engineering etc.

BASIC DEFINITIONS

System A system is one which operates on an input to produce an output. Input may be
– electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, biomedical signal or physical
variables like temperature, pressure, liquid level etc
Examples of systems are amplifier in electronic engineering, liquid level
process in chemical engineering, antenna tracking system in communication
engineering etc Each system produces some output for a given input.
Control system Control system is an arrangement of physical components to direct, regulate or
command a system so that a desired objective is obtained.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (NON-FEEDBACK SYSTEMS)

An open loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the process directly without using
feedback.
An open-loop control system is one in which the output is dependent on input, but controlling action
or input is totally independent of the output or changes in output of the system.

In an open loop system, the output can be adjusted / varied by varying the input but the output has no
effect on the input. The output of the open loop system can be determined only by its present state input.
If the output is affected due to some external disturbance, the open loop system cannot correct it. In
open loop systems, the changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually.

The block diagram of an open-loop system is shown below.

Electric clothes dryer: Depending upon the amount of clothes or how wet they
Example of are, an operator would set a timer (controller) to say 30 minutes and at the end of
open loop the 30 minutes the drier will automatically stop and turn-off even if the clothes
control system where still wet or damp. Here, the clothes dryer is an open-loop system as it does
not monitor or measure the condition of the output signal, which is the dryness of

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

the clothes. Then the accuracy of the drying process, or success of drying the
clothes will depend on the experience of the operator.
Electric Furnace: The output in the system is the desired temperature. The
temperature of the system is raised by heat generated by the heating element. The
output temperature depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains
ON. The ON and OFF of the supply is governed by the time setting of the relay.
DC Motor: For a given field current, a voltage is applied to the armature to
produce the desired value of motor speed. If the motor speed changes due to
change in mechanical load the shaft, there is no way in the open-loop system to
change the value of the applied armature voltage to maintain the desired speed
automatically.

Simple in construction and design. No sensors are needed to measure the

variables to provide feedback.
Advantages of
Economical
open loop
Easy from maintenance point of view
system
No stability problem. Generally, they are stable.
These systems are convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.

Not accurate and reliable because their accuracy is dependent on the controller.
Disadvantages The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected
of open loop automatically.
system Recalibration of the controller is required from time to time for maintaining
quality and accuracy.

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (FEEDBACK SYSTEMS)

Control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in order to maintain the
desired output value are called closed-loop control systems.
An open-loop control system can be modified into a closed-loop control system by providing
feedback.
The general block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in the figure below.

The reference signal (or input signal) corresponds to the desired output. The output signal is measured
and converted to a feedback signal of the same type as that of the reference signal. The feedback signal
is proportional to the output signal and it is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the
error detector is the difference between the reference signal and the feedback signal. The controller

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

modifies and amplifies the error signal to produce better control action. The modified error signal is fed
to the plant to correct its output.

DC motor speed control: A DC shunt motor with constant field current and
variable armature voltage is used to obtain the desired speed. The feedback is
taken by a tacho-generator. Tacho-generator generates voltage proportional to
speed and this voltage is compared with the voltage (reference input) required to
get the desired speed. This difference is given as input to the controller which
cumulatively changes the speed of the motor by controlling the armature voltage
through an amplifier.

Example of
closed loop
control system
Air Conditioner: The air conditioner measures the actual temperature of the
room, compares it with the desired input temperature, and maintains the
temperature of the room by turning the compressor ON or OFF as per the
requirement.
Traffic-light system: Some traffic-light systems are closed-loop and some are
open- loop. In the open-loop type, there is a timing mechanism that is set to switch
the lights at regular intervals, irrespective of the volume of traffic. In the closed-
loop type, however, the amount of traffic passing through the junctions is
monitored (electronically or otherwise), and the duration of the “red” and “green”
conditions are adjusted for each part of the junction accordingly.

More accurate than open loop systems because of the presence of feedback
Closed loop systems reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on the system
performance
The sensitivity of the closed-loop systems for parameter variations is made small
Advantages of
by increasing the feedback loop gain.
closed loop
The range of frequencies over which the system responds is increased because of
system
the increased bandwidth.
If an open-loop system is unstable, it is possible to make the system stable by
providing feedback.
There is reduced effect of non-linearities in these systems

Closed-loop systems are complicated in design

Disadvantages
Closed-loop systems are costlier
of closed loop
Feedback reduces the overall gain of the system
system
Stability is a major problem in closed loop system

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

COMPARISON OF OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

OPEN-LOOP CLOSED-LOOP
Any change in the output has no effect on the Changes in output affect the input which is
input (no feedback) possible by use of feedback
Feedback element is absent Feedback element is present
Error detector is not present Error detector is present
Inaccurate and unreliable Highly accurate and reliable
Highly sensitive to disturbances Less sensitive to disturbances
Bandwidth is small Bandwidth is large
Simple to construct and economical Complicated to design and hence costly
Generally, are stable Stability is the major consideration while design
They can be affected by non-linearities in the They can adjust the effect of non-linearities
system present in the system
It has less maintenance It has more maintenance
Example: Washing machine, room heater Example: refrigerator, servomotor control

CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

The position of the potentiometer slider represents the reference input (desired speed). The
tachogenerator connected to the shaft produces a feedback signal proportional to the motor speed. The
difference between the input voltage setting and the feedback voltage level gives the error signal. Any
external disturbance like change in load will produce an error signal which the controller would
automatically respond for adjusting the motor speed. Controller works to minimize the error signal
leading to zero error which indicates actual speed equal to set point.

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of input provided that all the initial conditions are zero.

Transfer function G(s) can be written mathematically as,

Laplace transform of output
G (s) 
Laplace transform of input all initial conditions
are zero
C (s)
G (s) 
R ( s ) all initial conditions
are zero

Determine the transfer function of the electrical network shown in figure.

Vi ( s )
I (s) 
Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )

Z 2 ( s )Vi ( s )
Vo ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) I ( s ) 
Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )

Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s)
G (s)  
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )
Determine the transfer function of the phase-lag network shown in figure.

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

1
R2 
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) Cs sR 2 C  1
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R  R  1 s ( R1  R2 ) C  1
1 2
Cs
Determine the transfer function of the phase-lead network shown in figure.

1
R1 
1 sC1 R1
Z1 ( s )  R1 / /  
sC1 R  1 sR1C1  1
1
sC1

Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) R2 R2 ( sR1C1  1)
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 R1  R2 ( sR1C1  1)
 R2
sR1C1  1

R2 ( sR1C1  1) R2 ( sR1C1  1)
G ( s)  
R1  R2 ( sR1C1  1) R1  R2  sR1 R2 C1

Determine the transfer function of the lag-lead compensator network shown in figure.

1
R1 
1 sC1 R1
Z1 ( s )  R1 / /  
sC1 R  1 sR1C1  1
1
sC1

1 sR C  1
Z 2 ( s )  R2   2 2
sC 2 sC 2

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

sR2 C 2  1
V (s) Z 2 (s) sC 2 ( sR2C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
G (s)  o   
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 sR C  1 sR1C 2  ( sR2C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
 2 2
sR1C1  1 sC 2

( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)


s R1 R2 C1C 2  s ( R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2 )  1
2

Dividing both numerator and denominator by R1R2C1C2,

 1  1 
s  s  
 R1C1   R2 C 2 
G (s) 
 1 1 1  1
s2  s    
R C
 1 1 R C
2 2 R C
1 2  R1 2 C1C 2
R

FEEDBACK CONTROL

The feedback control is an operation in which the output is sampled and a proportional signal is
feedback to the input. The feedback output may be in phase or out-of-phase with respect to the input.
When the feedback output is in phase with the input it is termed positive feedback. When the feedback
output is out-of-phase with respect to the input it is termed negative feedback.

All control systems are usually negative feedback systems. In a negative feedback system, the difference
between the reference input and the output produces an error which is reduced gradually and bring the
output of the system to a desired level.

The positive feedback output gets added to the reference input and increases the error signal and drives
the output to instability. But, sometimes, positive feedback is used in minor loops in control systems to
amplify certain internal signals or parameters. (Ppositive feedback increases the gain and the possibility
of instability in a system which may lead to self-oscillation and as such, positive feedback is widely
used in oscillatory circuits such as Oscillators and Timing circuits)

EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK

The error between the system input and output can be reduced by using a feedback system.

Here, G(s) = open-loop gain

The overall transfer function of the closed-loop system is derived as follows: -

R (s)  C (s)H (s)  E (s)

But, C ( s )  E ( s ) G ( s ) ----- (1)

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

R ( s )  E ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )  E ( s )

R ( s )  E ( s )(1  G ( s ) H ( s )) ----- (2)

From (1) and (2);

C (s) G ( s)

R ( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
Effects of feedback are as follows: -

For open loop system, gain is G(s). With negative feedback, overall gain is
C (s) G (s)
 .
R(s) 1  G (s)H (s)
1
Hence, for a negative feedback, gain is reduced by a factor
1  G (s)H (s)
Effect of feedback If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this
on overall gain case, GH is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this
case, GH is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
In general, G and H are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase
the overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other
frequency range
A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said
to be unstable.
C (s) G (s)

Effect of feedback R(s) 1  G (s)H (s)
on stability If the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control
system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the
control system stable
In general, a good control system should be very insensitive to parameter
variations but sensitive to input commands.
Sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system is the reciprocal
of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value
of (1+GH).
If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case,
Effect of feedback
GH is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
on sensitivity
If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case,
GH is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
In general, ’G’ and ’H’ are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase
the sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the
other frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of GH in such
a way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.
Effect of feedback To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function
on external relations with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.
disturbance or Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
noise

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

C (s)
The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is  Gb ( s ) . It
N (s)
is obtained by making other input R(s) equal to zero.
Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
N(s)

Ga(s) Gb(s)
R(s) C(s)

H(s)
closed-loop noise signal
The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is
C (s) Gb ( s )
 .It is obtained by making the other input R(s)
N ( s ) 1  G a ( s ) Gb ( s ) H ( s )
equal to zero.
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by
a factor of (1 + GaGbH) provided that the term (1 + GaGbH) is greater than one.
Effect of feedback Feedback can affect performance characteristics such as bandwidth,
on bandwidth, impedance, transient response and frequency response.
impedance,
transient response
and frequency
response

TYPE AND ORDER OF A SYSTEM

The transfer function can be written in any of the following forms:

The numerator is a polynomial of degree m and

C ( s ) bm s m  bm 1 s m 1  .......  b1 s  b0 the denominator is a polynomial of degree n.
1 
R ( s) s n  a n 1 s n 1  .......  a1 s  a 0 The degree n of the denominator polynomial
is called order of the system
C ( s ) K (1  sTz1 )(1  sTz 2 )........(1  sTzm )
2  Time-constant form
R(s) (1  sT p1 )(1  sT p 2 )........(1  sT pn )
Pole-zero form
C ( s ) K '( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )........( s  z m )
3  z1 , z2 ,....zm = Roots of numerator
R(s) ( s  p1 )( s  p 2 )........( s  p n )
polynomial = zeros of the system

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p1, p2 ,.... pn = Roots of denominator

polynomial = poles of the system
Order = No. of poles
Note: For all practical systems, m is always less than or equal to n. ( m  n )
The denominator polynomial equated to zero is called characteristic equation of the system
The roots of the characteristic equation is called poles.

Consider the closed loop system shown in figure below.

C (s) G (s)

R (s) 1  G (s ) H ( s)
C ( s)
Here, = overall transfer function and
R( s)
G ( s ) H ( s ) = open-loop transfer function of closed-
loop system
General representation of open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) of a feedback system is given as

K (1  sTz1 )(1  sTz 2 )........(1  sTzm )

G (s)H (s) 
s N (1  sT p1 )(1  sT p 2 )........(1  sT pn )

Here, N is the number of poles at the origin and it represents the type number of the system.

The type of the system is defined as the number of poles at the origin of the open-loop transfer
function G(s)H(s).

Note: For a unity feedback system, H(s) = 1 and

hence open-loop transfer function is G(s) only.

CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The basic components of an automatic control system are error detector, amplifier and controller,
actuator, plant and sensor or feedback system. The block diagram of an automatic control system is
shown below.

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CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The plant is an open-loop system whose output is automatically controlled
Plant
by closed loop system.
The combined unit of error detector, amplifier and controller is called
automatic controller. The system becomes open-loop system without
automatic controller.
In automatic control system, the reference signal will be an input signal
proportional to desired output. The feedback signal is proportional to the
Automatic controller

Error Detector
current output of the system. The effort detector compares the reference
input and feedback signal and if there is a difference it produces an error
signal. This error signal is used to correct the output if there is a deviation
from the desired value. Examples of error detector are potentiometer,
LVDT (linearly variable differential transformer), synchro etc.
Usually, the error signal is weak. An amplifier can be used to amplify the
Amplifier
error signal.
The controller itself amplifies the error signal and integrates or
Controller differentiates it to produce a control signal. The different types of
controllers are P, PI, PD and PID controllers.
The actuator is a power amplifying device that produces the input to the
plant according to the control signal. The actuator may be an electric
Actuator
motor. Examples of electric motors employed as actuator are DC
servomotor, AC servomotor and stepper motor.
The feedback system samples the output to produce a feedback signal
which is proportional to the current output. The feedback system also
Sensor or feedback converts the output variable into another suitable variable such as
system displacement, pressure or voltage so that it can be used to compare with
the reference input. Tacho-generators, transducers etc are used as the
feedback systems.

SERVOMOTOR

A servo motor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or linear
position, velocity, and acceleration. Block diagram of a typical servo system is shown below.

A reference input (typically called a velocity input) is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls the
speed of the servomotor. Directly mounted to the servomotor is a feedback device. This device changes
mechanical motion into electrical signals and is used as a feedback signal. This feedback signal is then
sent to the error detector and is compared with the reference input. If there is an error, that error is fed
directly to the amplifier, which makes the necessary corrections.

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AC SERVOMOTOR

A type of servomotor that uses AC electrical input in order to produce mechanical output in the form
of precise angular velocity is known as AC servo motor. The output power achieved from ac servomotor
ranges between some watt to a few hundred watts, while the operating frequency range is between 50
to 400 Hz. AC servomotors are of the two-phase induction motor type.

CONSTRUCTION OF AC SERVOMOTOR: Similar to a normal induction motor, this motor

comprises of a stator and rotor.

STATOR: The stator of this motor which has a laminated structure is wound with its two windings
placed 90˚electrical apart in space. One of the windings called the main winding is excited from the
constant-voltage supply source. The other winding called the control winding is energized by the
variable control voltage which is 90˚electrical out of phase with respect to the voltage across the main
winding. The control voltage is supplied from a servo amplifier.

ROTOR: The rotor is usually of the squirrel cage type with small diameter and large length to keep the
mechanical inertia as low as possible. It has high resistance in order to obtain a torque-speed
characteristic as linear as possible. The inertia of the rotor is further reduced using drag-cup rotor for
very low power applications. This type of rotor is a special form of squirrel-cage rotor in which
conductors are in the form of a drag-cup made of a non-magnetic material such as copper, aluminium
or an alloy. The sotted rotor laminations are replaced by a set of stationary ring-shaped lamination that
provide a low-reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

To minimize rotor kinetic energy, servo motors are wound with as many poles as possible so that they
operate at low speeds. This also provides corresponding increase in torque. AC servomotors have small
air gaps to reduce magnetizing current and consequent losses.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: One phase, designated as reference phase, is excited by a constant

voltage source, the frequency of which is usually 50/60 or 400Hz. The second phase of the servomotor,
designated as the control phase, is excited by a voltage of variable magnitude and polarity. This variable
control voltage is obtained from the servo amplifier. It is to be noted here that to have a rotating magnetic
field, the voltage applied to the control winding must be 90° out of phase w.r.t the reference voltage.
The required phase difference is provided by a capacitor. Rotating magnetic field induces emf s and
hence currents in rotor conductors. The rotating magnetic field interacts with these currents producing
a torque on the rotor in the direction of field rotation. This causes the rotor to rotate in a smooth manner.

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF AC SERVOMOTOR:

d
T  K 1 ec  K 2 T ( s )  K 1 E c ( s )  K 2 s ( s )
dt

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

d 2 d
T  J 2
B T ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  B s 
dt dt
K 1 E c ( s )  K 2 s ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  Bs 

K 1 E c ( s )   ( s )  s  Js  B  K 2 

K1
 (s) K1 B  K2 Km
  
Ec ( s ) s  Js  B  K 2   J  s  s m  1 
ss  1
 B  K2 
K1 J
where K m  = Motor gain constant and  m  = Motor time constant
B  K2 B  K2

TORQUE–SPEED CHARACTERISTICS: The general shape of the torque-seed characteristics of a

two-phase induction motor depends largely on the value of rotor resistance. Increasing the rotor
resistance linearizes the torque-speed characteristics. Because of this, the rotor of the servomotor is
built with high resistance so that its torque-speed characteristics is nearly linear.

Torque-speed characteristics of a servomotor for various control voltages (V1, V2, V3, V4 etc) are shown
in figure below.

It is observed that the torque (particularly starting torque) varies almost linearly with speed as well as
with control voltage. The torque for any particular value of control voltage is high in the zero speed

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range and decreases as the motor speeds up. The drop in torque serves as a stabilizing feature for the
control system.

FEATURES

1. These are low weight devices.

2. It offers reliability as well as stability in operation.
3. There is not much noise generated at the time of operation.
4. It offers almost linear torque-speed characteristics.
5. As brushes and slip rings are not present here thus it reduces maintenance cost.

APPLICATIONS: Because of this ruggedness, light-in-weight construction, high torque-to-weight

ratio, reliability, freedom from ratio noise, and the simplicity of their driving circuits, AC servo motors
are widely used particularly in instrument servos, computers, tracking and guidance systems, self-
balancing recorders, remote-positioning devices, process controllers, robotics, machine tools, special
purpose machines, and in other numerous applications where precise angular motion is required.

DC SERVOMOTOR

Except some minor differences in constructional features, a DC servo motor is essentially an ordinary
DC motor. To meet the requirement for low inertia, DC servomotors are designed with large length-to-
diameter ratio for their armatures. Further, to attain linear torque-speed characteristics, they are
generally separately excited.

DC servomotors can be controlled either by field current or armature current. Accordingly they are
classified as i) armature controlled DC servomotor or ii) field controlled DC servomotor.

ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR

In this case, the output (ie control signal) of the servo-amplifier is applied to the armature winding and
the field current is kept constant. In comparison with field control, armature control gives nearly, ideal
linear performance with rapid response. For large size motors, use of armature control becomes more
economical.

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

Representation of an armature-controlled DC motor is shown in figure. An external DC source supplies

a constant current if to the field winding. Control signal is applied to the armature.

Let
Ra = armature winding resistance
La = armature winding inductance
ea = applied armature voltage
eb = back emf

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 = angular velocity in rad/sec

 = angular displacement of the rotor in rad
J = moment of inertia of rotor and load
B = viscous friction coefficient

dia
e a  i a R a  La  eb E a ( s )  I a ( s )  Ra  sLa   Eb ( s )
dt
d
eb  K b E b ( s )  K b s ( s )
dt
T  K T ia T (s)  K T Ia (s)
d 2 d T ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  B s 
T  J 2
B
dt dt
E a ( s )  I a ( s )  Ra  sLa   Eb ( s )  I a ( s )  Ra  sLa   K b s ( s )

T ( s )  ( s )  Js  B s 
2

But, I a ( s )  
KT KT

 ( s )  Js 2  B s 
Ea (s)   R a  sL a   K b s ( s )
KT

KT
 (s)

KT

 Js  B  Ra  sLa   1
E a ( s ) s  Js  B  Ra  sLa   K T K b s 1  KT Kb s
 Js  B  Ra  sLa 

This is of the form,  ( s )  G


1
Ea (s) 1  GH s

Hence, block diagram of armature-controlled DC motor is given by,

TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

APPLICATIONS: The inertia of DC servomotors tends to be larger than that of squirrel-cage AC

motors. This and added frictional drag of brushes are the main factors which discourage their use in
instrument servos. In small sies, DC servomotors are primarily used in air-craft control systems where
wight and space limitations require motors to deliver maximum power per unit volume. They are often
used for intermittent duty or where unusually high starting torques are required e.g. for fan and blower
drives. They may also be used for electromechanical actuators, process controllers, programming
devices, robotics, machine tools, special purpose machines, and for a host of other applications of a
similar nature.

FIELD CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR

In this type of motor, the output (ie. control signal) from the servo-amplifier is applied to the field
winding keeping the armature current constant.

di f
ef  if Rf  Lf E f ( s )  I f ( s )  R f  sL f 
dt
T  K T 'i f T (s)  K T ' I f (s)

d 2
d T ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  B s 
T  J 2
B
dt dt
E f ( s )  I f ( s )  R f  sL f 
T ( s )  ( s )  Js  B s 
2

But, I f ( s )  
KT ' KT '

 ( s )  Js 2  Bs 
E f (s) 
KT '
R f  sL f 
 (s) KT '

E f ( s ) s  Js  B   R f  sL f 
Block diagram of a field-controlled DC motor is shown below

Even though the power required for field control is only a fraction of the power required for armature
control, it is less common. This is because the time constant of the field circuit (Lf/Rf) is large compared
with the armature circuit time constant (La/Ra). Consequently, field control does not give as rapid
response as armature control. Also, the torque-speed characteristics under field control is not as linear

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as under armature control. Field control is normally used for small size motors as only a low power
servo-amplifier is required, while the armature current which is not large can be supplied from an
inexpensive constant-current source.

COMPARISON OF DC & AC SERVOMOTORS

DC SERVOMOTOR AC SERVOMOTOR
It delivers high power output Delivers low output of about 0.5 W to 100 W
It has more stability problems It has less stability problems
It requires frequent maintenance due to the It requires less maintenance due to the absence of
presence of commutator commutator
It provides high efficiency The efficiency of AC servo motor is less and is
about 5 to 20%
The life of DC servo motor depends on the life The life of AC servo motor depends on bearing
on brush life life
It includes permanent magnet in its construction The synchronous type AC servo motor uses
permanent magnet while induction type doesn’t
require it.
These motors are used for high power These motors are used for low power
applications applications

GYROSCOPE

Gyroscopes are devices mounted on a frame and able to sense an angular velocity if the frame is rotating.

They are classified into mechanical gyroscopes; optical gyroscopes, micro-electromechanical system
(MEMS) gyroscopes.

A mechanical gyroscope essentially consists of a spinning mass that rotates around its axis. In particular,
when the mass is rotating on its axis, it tends to remain parallel to itself and to oppose any attempt to
change its orientation. If a gyroscope is installed on gimbals that allow the mass to navigate freely in
the three directions of space, its spinning axis will remain oriented in the same direction, even if it
changes direction.

The primary application of gyroscopic effects consists in the measurement of the angular position of a
moving vehicle. The spinning mass is mounted upon a gimbaled frame, allowing rotation along two
perpendicular axes. The gimbaled frame of the gyroscope is attached to the vehicle and it is free to
rotate, while the rotation axis of the spinning mass keeps its angular position during the motion of the

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vehicle. The variation of the absolute angle of the vehicle can be simply associated to the relative
variation of the angle between the rotation axis of the mass and a fixed direction on the frame of the
gyroscope.

Another useful application of this physical effect is that exploited in gyrocompasses: when external
torques are not applied to the frame, the gyrocompass keeps the angular position of a pointer to North
direction, independently of the path followed by the vehicle. The advantage of such a mechanical system
is that it is immune to magnetic fields that can cause deviations on the pointer angle.

(Refer for animation: https://www.smlease.com/entries/mechanical-design-basics/what-is-gyroscope-

how-gyroscopes-work-and-their-applications/)

Applications of Gyroscope

1. Gyroscopes find applications in the compasses of boats, spacecraft, and aeroplanes. The
orientation and the pitch of the aeroplane are determined against the steady spin of the
gyroscope.
2. In spacecraft, the navigation of the desired target is done with the help of a gyroscope. The
spinning centre of the gyroscope is used as the orientation point.
3. The stabilization of the large boats and satellites is done with the help of massive gyroscopes.
4. Gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites for the maintenance of the direction in tunnel mining.
5. Gyroscopes along with accelerometers are used in the design of smartphones providing
excellent motion sensing.

DC TACHOGENERATOR
A DC tachogenerator consists of a small armature which is coupled to the machine whose speed is to
be measured. This armature revolves in the field of a permanent magnet. The emf generated is
proportional to the produce of flux and speed. Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the
voltage generated is proportional to the speed. The polarity of the output voltage indicates the direction
of rotation. Commutator and brushes are used to convert the alternating current of the armature into
direct current.

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If e(t) is the output voltage of the tachogenerator and  is the angular speed in rad/sec,
d  ( t ) where K is the sensitivity of the tachogenerator
e (t )  K t t
dt

Then transfer function of the DC tachogenerator is given by

E (s)
 sK t
 (s)

APPLICATIONS: Tachometer generators are often utilized to gauge engine and motor speed, along
with the matching rate of powered equipment such as conveyors, mixers, fans, as well as equipment
devices. They are consequently used as feedback elements in speed control circuits.

AC TACHOGENERATOR

AC tachogenerator resembles a two-phase induction motor. It comprises two stator windings (referred
to as reference winding and output winding) arranged in space quadrature and the squirrel cage rotor.
The reference winding is excited by a sinusoidal voltage with frequency c. When the rotor is stationary,
no emf is induced in the output winding. When the rotor rotates, an emf will be induced in the output
winding. Magnitude of the output voltage will be proportional to the rotational speed. A change in the
direction of shaft rotation causes a 180˚ phase shift in the output voltage.

If the reference winding is excited by the voltage er (t )  E r sin  c t , an emf of em ( t )  e ( t ) sin  c t is

induced in the output winding if the rotor is rotating. The output voltage of an AC tachogenerator is,
thus, in a modulated form. The information about shaft speed is stored not in e m(t) rather in e(t). The
voltage e(t) is separated by using a demodulator (signal conditioner).

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d  ( t ) where K is the sensitivity of the tachogenerator.

e (t )  K t t
dt

The transfer function of an AC tachogenerator is

E (s)
 sK t
 (s)
SYNCHRO (SELSYN)
The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the angular position of the shaft into an electric
signal. It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position sensor. The error occurs in the system
because of the misalignment of the shaft.

Synchros are used for error detection in position control systems. Their systems consist two units. They
are

1. Synchro Transmitter
2. Synchro receiver

SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER –It has a stator and rotor. The stator of the synchro is made of steel for
reducing the iron losses. Stator winding is made up of conductors insulated from each other arranged
in the slots of the stator core. There are three windings on the stator side, they are connected in star and
are physically displaced by 120˚ from each other around the periphery. The rotor is made up of a stack
of sheet steel stampings with good magnetic property. Rotor core may be dumb-bell shaped (salient
pole type), umbrella shaped or drum-shaped cylindrical rotor.

The single-phase AC voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of slip rings and brushes. The resultant
current produces an alternating flux in the air-gap and induces voltage in the stator coils by mutual
induction. The induced voltage in the stator coil depends on the angular position of the coil axis with
respect to the rotor axis.

Let e (t )  E sin  t is the AC voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter. When the rotor is in the
position corresponding to  = 0, the voltage induced across the stator winding S2 and the neutral is
maximum and is written as

e S 2 n ( t )  K E sin  t where K is a proportionality constant.

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When the rotor is in the position corresponding to  = 90˚, the voltage e S 2 n ( t )  0 .

In general, for any position  of the rotor.

e S 2 n ( t )  K E cos  sin  t

If S2 winding is taken as reference,

e S 3 n ( t )  K E co s(  12 0 ) sin  t

e S1 n ( t )  K E co s(  1 2 0 ) sin  t

Then, the terminal voltage between S1 and S2 is

eS1S2  eS1 n  eS2 n  3KE sin(  240) sin t

eS2 S3  eS2 n  eS3 n  3KE sin(  120)sin t

eS3S1  eS3 n  eS1 n  3KE sin  sin t

SYNCHRO CONTROL TRANSFORMER: The constructional features of synchro control transformer

are similar to that of synchro transmitter, except the shape of rotor. The rotor of the control transformer
is umbrella-shaped so that the air gap is practically uniform. The induced emf in the stator of the synchro
transmitter is applied as input to the stator coils of control transformer. The rotor shaft is connected to
the load whose position has to be maintained at the desired value. Depending on the angular position of
the rotor and the stator emf, an emf is induced on the rotor winding. This emf can be measured and used
to drive a motor so that the position of the load is corrected.

SYNCHRO AS ERROR DETECTOR

The synchro error detector is formed by the interconnection of a synchro transmitter and synchro control
transformer. In this arrangement, the stator leads of the transmitter are directly connected to the stator
leads of the control transformer. The synchro transmitter has dumb-bell shaped rotor core. The rotor
winding is connected to single-phase ac supply. The synchro control transformer has umbrella-shaped
rot core. Error signal is available across the rotor winding of the control transformer.

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Consider that the rotor of synchro transmitter is connected to one shaft and its angular position indicates
the set point (reference input). The rotor of control transformer is connected to the servomotor shaft
whose position is the desired output.

Rotor of the synchro transmitter is connected to single-phase ac supply. It establishes alternating flux
in the core and air gap. It links with the three stator windings of the synchro transmitter. The stator
winding has induced voltages in phase for all the three windings. The magnitudes of the voltages are
dependent on the relative position of each stator winding with the rotor. Circulating currents flow
between the stator windings of synchro transmitter and control transformer.

Consider that the rotor of control transformer is arranged perpendicular to the rotor of synchro
transmitter.

Let  = rotor position for synchro transmitter

 = rotor position for control transformer

e (t )  E sin  t = instantaneous value of input voltage

eo ( t ) = output voltage from control transformer rotor (error voltage)

Let the rotor of the transmitter rotate through an angle θ from its electrical zero position. Now the rotor
of the control transformer will rotate in the same direction through an angle α from its null position.
The net angular separation of the two rotors is equal to (90-θ+α) and the voltage induced in the control
transformer rotor is proportional to the cosine of this angle.

Output voltage can be written as, eo (t )  KE cos(90     ) sin  t where K is proportionality

constant.

eo (t )  KE sin(   ) sin  t

Output voltage eo(t) is zero when     0  .

Let  (t )    

eo ( t )  KE sin  ( t ) sin  t

For small value of  ( t ) , eo (t )  KE (t ) sin  t

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Thus, the output voltage from the rotor of the control transformer is directly proportional to the
difference of two shaft positions and hence it can be used as error detector.

The output voltage of the synchro error detector is a modulated signal with carrier frequency, ω (which
is same as supply frequency of the transmitter rotor).

The magnitude of the modulated carrier wave is proportional to φ(t). The signal conditioning circuit
demodulates the output voltage and develops a demodulated and amplified error voltage to drive the
servomotor (actuator).

The transfer function of the synchro-error detector is ,

Eo ( s )
K
 (s)

STEPPER MOTOR
Stepper motor rotates through a fixed angular step in response to each input current pulse received from
its controller. Stepping motors are ideally suited for situations where either precise positioning or
precise speed control or both are required in automation systems.

The angle through the motor shaft rotates for each command pulse is called the step angle. Smaller the
step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution and higher the resolution or accuracy of
positioning obtained. The steps angles can be as small as 0.72˚ or as large as 90˚.

The value of step angle  can be expressed either in terms of the rotor and stator poles (teeth) Nr and Ns
respectively or in terms of the number of stator phases (m) and the number of rotor teeth.
N  Nr 360 
  s  360 
Ns  Nr mN r

TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS

Variable reluctance It has wound stator poles but the rotor poles are made of a ferromagnetic
stepper motor material as shown.

It can be of the single stack type or multi-stack type which gives smaller step
angles. Direction of motor rotation is independent of the polarity of the stator
current. It is called variable reluctance motor because the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit formed by the rotor and stator teeth varies with the angular
position of the rotor.

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Permanent magnet It also has wound stator poles but its rotor poles are permanently magnetized.
stepper motor It has a cylindrical rotor as shown in figure. Its direction of rotation depends
on the polarity of the stator current.

Hybrid stepper It has wound stator poles and permanently-magnetized rotor poles. As it is a
motor hybrid motor it has a combination of advantages of both permanent as well as
variable reluctance rotor, which mainly consists of high speed, resolution, and
torque. Due to its hybrid nature, its costs and construction are more complex.

VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR

A variable-reluctance motor is constructed from ferromagnetic material with salient poles as shown in
figure. The stator is made from a stack of steel laminations and has six equally-spaced projecting poles
(or teeth) each wound with an exciting coil. The rotor which may be solid or laminated has four
projecting teeth of the same width as the stator teeth. As seen, there are three independent stator circuits
or phases A, B and C and each one can be energized by a direct current pulse from the drive circuit.

The six stator coils are connected in 2-coil groups to form three separate circuits called phases. Each
phase has its own independent switch. Diametrically opposite pairs of stator coils are connected in series
such that when one tooth becomes a N-pole, the other one becomes a S-pole.

When there is no current in the stator coils, the rotor is completely free to rotate. Energizing one or
more stator coils causes the rotor to step forward (or backward) to a position that forms a path of least

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reluctance with the magnetized stator teeth. The step angle of this three-phase, four rotor teeth motor is
360
   30 .
3 4

Fig. (a) shows the position of the rotor when switch S1 has been closed for energizing phase A. A
magnetic field with its axis along the stator poles of phase A is created. The rotor is therefore, attracted
into a position of minimum reluctance with diametrically opposite rotor teeth 1 and 3 lining up with
stator teeth 1 and 4 respectively. Closing S2 and opening S1 energizes phase B causing rotor teeth 2 and
4 to align with stator teeth 3 and 6 respectively as shown in Fig. (b). The rotor rotates through full-step
of 30º in the clockwise (CW) direction. Similarly, when S3 is closed after opening S2, phase C is
energized which causes rotor teeth 1 and 3 to line up with stator teeth 2 and 5 respectively as shown in
Fig. (c). The rotor rotates through an additional angle of 30º in the clockwise (CW) direction. Next if
S3 is opened and S1 is closed again, the rotor teeth 2 and 4 will align with stator teeth 4 and 1 respectively
thereby making the rotor turn through a further angle of 30º as shown in Fig. (d). By now the total angle
turned is 90º.
As each switch is closed and the preceding one opened, the rotor each time rotates through an angle of
30º. By repetitively closing the switches in the sequence 1-2-3-1 and thus energizing stator phases in
sequence ABCA etc., the rotor will rotate clockwise in 30º steps. If the switch sequence is made 3-2-1-
3 which makes phase sequence CBAC (or ACB), the rotor will rotate anticlockwise. This mode of
operation is known as 1-phase-ON mode or full-step operation and is the simplest and widely-used way
of making the motor step.

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PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

Its stator construction is similar to that of the single-stack VR motor discussed above but the rotor is
made of a permanent-magnet material like magnetically ‘hard’ ferrite. As shown in the Fig. (a), the
stator has projecting poles but the rotor is cylindrical and has radially magnetized permanent magnets.
The operating principle of such a motor can be understood with the help of Fig. (a) where the rotor has
two poles and the stator has four poles. Since two stator poles are energized by one winding, the motor
has two windings or phases marked A and B. The step angle of this motor   3 6 0   9 0 
22

When a particular stator phase is energized, the rotor magnetic poles move into alignment with the
excited stator poles. The stator windings A and B can be excited with either polarity current (A+ refers
to positive current iA+ in the phase A and A- to negative current iA-).
Fig. (a) shows the condition when phase A is excited with positive current iA+. Here,  = 0º. If excitation
is now switched to phase B as in Fig. (b), the rotor rotates by a full step of 90º in the clockwise direction.
Next, when phase A is excited with negative current iA-, the rotor turns through another 90º in CW

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direction as shown in Fig. (c). Similarly, excitation of phase B with i B- further turns the rotor through
another 90º in the same direction as shown in Fig. (d). After this, excitation of phase A with i A+ makes
the rotor turn through one complete revolution of 360º.
Since the permanent magnets of the motor do not require external exciting current, it has a low power
requirement but possesses a high detent torque as compared to a VR stepper motor. This motor has
higher inertia and hence slower acceleration. However, it produces more torque per ampere stator
current than a VR motor. Since it is difficult to manufacture a small permanent-magnet rotor with large
number of poles, the step size in such motors is relatively large ranging from 30º to 90º.

TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS
Pull-out torque: The maximum torque which can be applied to a motor, running at a given stepping rate,
without losing synchronism.

Pull-in torque: The maximum torque against which a motor will start, at a given pulse rate, and reach
synchronism without losing a step.

Dynamic torque: The torque developed by the motor at very slow stepping speeds.

Holding torque: The maximum torque which can be applied to an energized stationary motor without
causing spindle rotation.

Pull-out rate: The maximum switching rate at which a motor will remain in synchronism while the
switching rate is gradually increased.

Pull-in rate: The maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor can start without losing steps.

Slew range: The range of switching rates between pull-in and pull-out in which a motor will run in
synchronism but cannot start or reverse.

During the application of each sequential pulse the rotor of a stepper motor accelerates rapidly towards
the new step position. However, on reaching the new position there will be some overshoot and
oscillation unless sufficient retarding torque is provided to prevent this happening. These oscillations
can cause rotor resonance at certain pulse frequencies, resulting in loss of torque, or perhaps even pull-
out conditions. As variable-reluctance motors have very little inherent damping they are more
susceptible to resonances than either the permanent magnet or the hybrid types. Mechanical and
electronic dampers are available which can be used to minimize the adverse effects of rotor resonance.
If at all possible, however, the motor should be selected such that its resonant frequencies are not critical
to the application under consideration.

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APPLICATIONS: Stepper motors are used for operation control in computer peripherals, textile
industry, IC fabrications and robotics etc. Applications requiring incremental motion are typewriters,
line printers, tape drives, floppy disk drives, numerically-controlled machine tools, process control
systems and X -Y plotters. Usually, position information can be obtained simply by keeping count of
the pulses sent to the motor thereby eliminating the need for expensive position sensors and feedback
controls. Stepper motors also perform countless tasks outside the computer industry. It includes
commercial, military and medical applications where these motors perform such functions as mixing,
cutting, striking, metering, blending and purging.

CONTROLLERS OR COMPENSATORS

It should be stable
The controlled output should follow the changes in the reference input
Desired specifications without unduly oscillations or overshoots. That is, it should have suitable
of a good feedback damping.
system It should be less sensitive to system parameter changes.
It should be able to reduce the effect of undesirable disturbances
It should have as little steady-state error as possible.

NEED OF COMPENSATION: A control system is designed to perform a certain task while meeting
some specifications. Sometimes, a closed loop system may not be satisfactory with regard to its stability
characteristics, speed of response and steady-state accuracy. The system may be oscillatory or even
unstable. It may have either extremely fast or very sluggish response. The errors under steady-state
between the actual and desired values may be excessive and not acceptable. Therefore, a necessity arises
to modify the system or system parameters to provide the desired performance with respect to the above
characteristics. This has certain practical limitations, such as size, range, and cost of available
components.

In such cases the performance of the control system is improved by adding additional components to it.
The method of improving the performance in this way is called compensation. The additional
component changes the transfer function of the overall system and gives the desired performance. In
feedback systems the compensation added is simple and less expensive and provides substantial
improvement in the performance.

A controller or a compensator is a device which when introduced in forward or feedback path of a

system, controls the steady-state and transient response according to the requirement.
A compensator
i) Make an unstable system table
ii) Minimize overshoot
iii) Increase steady-state accuracy
iv) Improves transient response

TYPES OF COMPENSATION

A compensator is inserted into the system at a suitable location depending upon the requirement.
Compensation is usually classified as follows:

1. Cascade (or series) compensation

2. Feedback (or parallel) compensation

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3. Series-parallel compensation
4. Feed-forward compensation

Cascade (or
series)
compensation In this type of compensated system, the compensator is included in the forward path
of the system.
The addition of compensator in the forward path adjusts the gain of a system which
reduces the response time and peak overshoot of the system. In addition, the stability
of the system gets reduced.

Feedback (or
parallel)
compensation

The addition of compensator in the feedback path increases the response time of the
system that makes it accurate and more stable

Series-
parallel
compensation

It is a combination of both series and parallel compensation.

Feed-forward
compensation

The feed forward controller is placed in parallel with the closed-loop system which
has a controller in the forward path.

LEAD COMPENSATOR

The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having phase lead
when a sinusoidal input is applied.

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1
R1 
1 sC  R1
Z 1 ( s )  R1 / / 
sC R  1 sR1C  1
1
sC
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) R2 R2 ( sR1C  1)
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 R1  R2 ( sR1C  1)
 R2
sR1C  1

R2 ( sR1C  1)
G (s) 
R1  R2 ( sR1C  1)

R2 ( sR1C  1) R2 1  sR1C  (1  sT )
G (s)   
1  sR1C  1   sT
R1  R 2 ( sR1C  1) R1  R2 1  R2
R1  R 2

R2
Let T  R1C and   1
R1  R 2

Dividing both numerator & denominator by T,

1
s
G (s)  T ;  1
1
s
T

1 1
Lead network has a zero at s  and a pole at s  . Since 0    1 , the zero is always located
T T
to the right of the pole in the complex s-plane. Since zero is always nearer to the origin as compared to
pole, the effect of zero is dominant.

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The damping of a closed loop system is increased

The overshoot is reduced and the transient response is improved
Effects of lead Bandwidth of the system is increased and hence the response is faster
compensator Relative stability is improved
The steady state error is not affected
Phase margin of the closed loop system is increased

Since an additional increase in the gain is required, it results in larger

space, more elements, greater weight and higher cost
From a single lead network, the maximum lead angle available is about
Limitations of lead
60˚. For lead of more than 70˚ to 90˚, a multistage lead compensator is
compensator
required
Due to increased bandwidth, noise level at the system output is
increased

LAG COMPENSATOR

A lag compensator is a circuit that is designed to generate a steady-state sinusoidal signal having a
phase lag to the applied input sinusoidal signal.

1
R2 
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) Cs sR 2 C  1
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R  R  1 s ( R1  R 2 ) C  1
1 2
Cs

R1  R2
Let T  R2 C and   1
R2

 R1  R2 
T    R2 C   R1  R2  C
 R2 

1
s
sR2 C  1 sT  1 1 T
G (s)    
s ( R1  R2 )C  1 s  T  1  s  1
T

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It has a high gain at low frequencies and low gain at higher frequencies.
Effects of lag
Hence, a lag compensator acts as a low-pass filter.
compensator
Steady-state performance is improved

Limitations of lag Bandwidth is reduced and transient response becomes slower.

compensator More sensitive to parameters variation

LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR

Lead compensators are employed to improve transient response. To meet the steady-state requirements,
lag compensators are used. Only single compensator, lag or lead, can not meet both the requirements
simultaneously. Lag-lead compensators are used when both transient as well as steady-state responses
are to be improved.

Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one frequency (low
frequency) region and phase lead at other frequency (high frequency) region. It is a combination of both
the lag and the lead compensators.

1
R1 
1 sC1 R1
Z1 ( s )  R1 / /  
sC1 R  1 sR1C1  1
1
sC1

1 sR C  1
Z 2 ( s )  R2   2 2
sC 2 sC 2

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

sR2C 2  1
V ( s) Z 2 (s) sC 2 ( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
G (s)  o   
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 sR C  1 sR1C 2  ( sR2C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
 2 2
sR1C1  1 sC 2

( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)


s R1 R2 C1C 2  s ( R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2 )  1
2

Dividing both numerator and denominator by R1R2C1C2,

 1  1 
s  s  
 R1C1   R2 C 2 
G ( s) 
 1 1 1  1
s2  s    
 R1C1 R2 C 2 R1C 2  R1 R2 C1C 2

 1  1 
 s   s  
T1   T2 
G ( s)  
   1 
 s   s  
 T1    T2 

T1
where  > 1, R1C1  T1 , R2C2  T2 , R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2    T2


lead lag s-plane

pole zero zero pole

-1 -1 -1 -1 0
T1 T1 T2 T2

The lead characteristics provide improvement in the overall bandwidth

Effects of lead-lag and the response becomes faster.
compensator Due to the use of the lag network, the steady-state performance of the
system gets improved.

TYPES OF CONTROLLERS

Generally, system performance can be improved by using any of the following linear control methods:

1. Proportional control
2. Proportional Derivative (PD) control
3. Proportional plus Integral (PI) control
4. Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID) control

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER

The proportional controller is a device that produces a control signal which is proportional to the input
error signal e(t). The error signal is the difference between the reference input signal and the feedback
signal obtained from the output.

ea (t )  K p e (t )

Transfer function of the proportional controller is

Ea ( s )
 Kp
E (s)

The proportional controller amplifies the error signal by an amount Kp.

Introduction of P controller increases the forward path gain by Kp. If the forward path gain is increased,
the peak overshoot increases while the steady-state error is reduced. In actual systems, both peak
overshoot and steady-state errors are desired to be small. Hence, a compromised value of Kp is selected
for which the peak overshoot and the steady-state error are within specified limits.

PROPORTIONAL plus DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROLLER

The proportional plus derivative controller, the actuating signal ea(t) varies in proportion to the error
signal as well as with the derivative of the error signal.
de ( t )
ea (t )  K p e (t )  K D
dt

Transfer function of PD controller is

Ea ( s )
 K p  sK D
E (s)

The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control system without
affecting the steady state error.

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

PROPORTIONAL plus INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROLLER

The proportional plus integral controller, the actuating signal ea(t) varies in proportion to the error signal
as well as with the integral of the error signal.
t
ea (t )  K p e(t )  K I  e(t ) dt
0

Transfer function of PI controller is

Ea ( s ) K
 Kp  I
E ( s) s

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting the
stability of the control system.

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLER

The proportional plus integral controller, the actuating signal ea(t) varies proportional to the error signal
and also with the integral of the error signal.
t
de (t )
ea (t )  K p e(t )  K I  e(t ) dt  K D
0
dt

Transfer function of PI controller is

Ea ( s ) K
 K p  I  KDs
E (s) s

The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the control system and
to decrease steady state error.

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