FUNDAMENTALS OF CELL AND CELL STRUCTURE

 DEFINITION OF BIOCHEMISTRY
What is biochemistry?
Study of the structure, composition and chemical reaction of
substances in living system.

BIOLOGY CHEMISTRY

BIOCHEMISTRY

Deals with the study of the complex and simple chemical processes that
occur inside a human body, and the various biochemical element involved
in these processes.
It is used to study biochemical processes in plants, animals, micro-
organisms as well as human beings.
Biochemistry sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of
chemical processes within and relating to living organism. Biochemical
processes give rise to the complexity of life.
Biochemistry is a field of science that deals with the study of chemical
processes in plant and animals.
1. What are the basics of biochemistry
Cell composition and types of organism .
-covalent bound: hydrogen bounds.
-Macromolecules: Lipids,carbohydrates and Nucleic acids, proteins.
Biochemical reaction : enzymes and ATP.

CELL
-Basic unit of structure and function in living things

Multi-cellular unicellular
 Prokaryotes
Unicellular organism i.e bacteria (Escherichia coli and staphylococcus
aureus)
Can be found everywhere
Have a cell membranes and cytoplasms but do not contain nuclei.
Have 3 special regions.
1. FRAGELLA – the Pili which is a protein attached to the surface .
2. CELL ENVELOPE – consisting of capcule, a cell wall, and a plasma
membrane.
3. CYTOPLASMIC REGION – contains cell genome (DNA) and
ribosome.

Prokaryotic cells

Ekaryotes
The examples are the animals, plant, fungi and other unicellur organisms.
10x the size of a prokaryotes and 1000x greater volume.
Contain cell nucleus where nuclear membrane resides and where DNA
processes happen.
Contain membrane – bound compartments in which specific metabolic
activities take place.

Eukaryotic cell
 PART OF A CELL
Basic cell structures
Cell membrane nucleus cytoplasm

Plasma membrane/ cell membrane

Outer lining of eukaryotic cell
Serves as a protective coat for the
cell
Serves to separate snd protect a
cell from it’s surrounding
environment
Made mostly from a double layer
of proteins and lipids, fat-like
molecules
Surrounded within this membrane are a variety of other molecules that
act as channels and pumps, moving into and out of the cell.

Cytoskeleton
Is a network of protein filament that act to organize and maintain the
cell’s shape
Anchors organelles in place, the uptake of external material by a cell.
Moves part of the cell in processes of growth
It is involved in many forms of cell movement.

CYTOPLASM
A large fuid-filled space inside the cell
 In prokaryotes, this space is relatively free of compartment.
In eukaryotes, the cytoplasm is the “soup” within which all of the cell’s
organelles reside.
Where the cytoskeleton resides.
Contains dissolved nutrients, helps break down waste products, and
moves material around the cell through a process called CYTOPLASMIC
STREAMING.
Contains many impurities such as slats which is an idea conductor of
electricity.
The function of the cytoplasm , and the organelles which reside in it, are
critical for a cell’s survival.

NUCLEUS
First identified by Robert Brown.
Controls most cell processes and contains the hereditary information DNA.
Most prominent organelle where the cell’s chromosomes reside and is the
place where almost all DNA replication and RNA production and synthesis
occur.
Within the nucleus, chromatin and chromosomes are found.

CHROMATIN- consist of a DNA bound protein

CHROMOSOMES- are formed when a cell divides chromatin condenses.
-these are the threadlike structures containing the genetic information.

NUCLEOLUS
The nucleus also contain a darkened area, called NUCLEOLUS which is
responsible for the manufacture of the RNA found in ribosomes.
This is where the production of ribosomes begin.

RIBOSOME
Is a large complex composed of many molecules, including RNAs and
proteins, and is responsible for processing the genetic instruction.
Where protein synthesis happens.
Factory units for the production of proteins.
 Float freely in the cytoplasm or sometimes bind to the endoplasmic
reticulum.

ORGANELLES
found only in eukaryotes and are always surrounded by a protective
membrane
cell’s set of small organs that are adapted and/or specialized for
carrying out one or more vital function.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
is the organelle in which component of the cell membrane are assembled
and some proteins are modified.
Is composed of a membrane in folds on the inside of the cell membrane.
The part of the endoplasmic reticulum that is involved in protein synthesis
is called ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
o It is where ribosomes are attached.

GOLGI APPARATUS/GOLGI COMPLEX

Named after camillo Golgi
Proteins produced by the RER move into a sack of membranes called golgi
apparatus.
Has a role in protein processing and in the production, processing ,and
destruction of lipid and in THE PRODUCTION OF LYSOSOMES.
Receives protein from the endoplasmic reticulum ( cis side) and extrudes
them in the direction of the cell membrane (trans side).

MITOCHINDRIA
Play a critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell, thus these
are called the “power houses” of the cell.
Where the energy storage molecules (ATP) is produced using oxygen
in a process known as oxidative phosphorylation.
Are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers,
shape ,and size in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
2 FUNCTIONALLY DISTINCT MEMBRANE SYSTEMS:
 Outer membrane- surround the whole organelle
 Inner membrane – thrown into folds or shelves that project inward.
 These inward folds are called cristae which serve to increase the surface
are of the membrane .

CHLOROPLAST
Convert light energy from the sun into ATP through a process called
photosynthesis.
Similar to mitochondria but are found only in plants.
- Both are surrounded by a double membrane
- Both have DNA and involved energy metabolism
- Both have reticulation or many folding.

PEROXISOMES
Concentrate metabolic enzymes, specially those enzymes that accomplish
oxidative metabolism.
Contain digestive enzymes
Generate and detoxify free radicals
Have important role in immunity- they preserve the part of foreign protein
that the immune system recognizes.

VACUOLES
Transport material to and from the cell surface in mode isolated from the
rest of the cell interior
Can also be used for storage
Plant cell vacuoles may store energy in the form of starch
Plant cell us water stored in vacuoles to help offset changes in osmotic
pressure in their environment.

PROTEASOMES
Are organelles devoted to dismantling of degraded or misfolded proteins.
Recognizes a tag called ubiquitin.
- Ubiquitin attaches to surface markers that indicate the protein is
improperly configured.
 Proteasomes are constructed od a- and b- sub units.
The exterior of the proteasomes is composed of the a- subunits , which
have a receptor for the ubiquitin.
The interior of its barrel-like structure, composed of b- subunits, house
proteolytic enzymes.
MAKING NEW CELLS AND CELL TYPES

What is replication?
- It is a simple reproduction or duplication of cell for most unicellular
organism.
- But the multicellular organism, cell replication and reproduction
are two separate processes.
- Multicellular organisms replace damage or worn out cells through a
replication process called mitosis, the division of eukaryotic cell
nucleus to produce two identical daughter nuclei.

MITOSIS
 Interphase – the cell grows and replicates its DNA and centrioles.
- G1 phase –cell growth
- S phase- DNA replication
- G2 phase- Prepation for mitosis
 Prophase – the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The
centrioles separate, and spindles begin to form. The nuclear
membrane breaks down.
 Metaphase –the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell.
Each chromosomes is connected to a spindle fiber at its centromere.
 Anaphase –the sister chromatids separate into individual
chromosomes and are moved apart.
 Telophase- the chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and
lose their distinct shapes. Two nuclear membrane s form.
 Cytokinesis – the cytoplasm pinches in half. Each daughter cell has an
identical set of duplicate chromosomes.

Comparing mitosis and meiosis

 Mitosis results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells,
whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells.

MEIOSIS
meiosis is a process of reduction
division in which the number of
chromosomes per cell is cut in half
through the separation of
homologous chromosomes in a
diploid cell.
Meiosis I ( interphase I, prophase I, Metaphase I, anaphase I)
Meiosis II ( prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase ii)

MEIOSIS I
 Interphase I – cells undergo a round of DNA replication, forming duplicate
chromosomes
 Prophase I – each chromosomes pairs with its corresponding homologous
chromosomes to a tetrad.
 Metaphase – spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes.
 Anaphase I – the fibers pull the homologous chromosomes toward
opposite end of the cell.

MEIOSIS II
 Prophase II –meiosis result in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each with
half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.
 Metaphase II- the chromosomes line up in a similar way to the metaphase
stage of mitosis.
 Anaphase ll-the sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite end
of the cell.
 Telophase – meiosis II result in four haploids (N) cells.
Uncontrolled growth leads to CANCER.
 Cancers cells do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth of
most cells. As a result, they form masses of cells called tumor that can
damage the surrounding tissues.

PASSAGE OF MATERIALS ACROSS MEMBRANES

A. Passive processes transport- involve movement of substances down a
concentration gradient, that is from a region of higher/ greater
concentration to region of lesser/lower concentration, without cells
supplying energy.
1. Simple diffusion- the movement of molecules from the area of greater
concentration to the area of lesser concentration.
- Molecules of water , CO2 and O2 freely pass through a membrane
by simple diffusion.
2. Facilitated diffusion-is the movement of substances -across a
membrance which requires a carrier molecule.
- Carrier molecule-a membrance bound protein that binds to one or
a few specific molecule and assists in their movement across
- The membrane
- Glucose and some amino acids and vitamins and nucleotisides
enter cells by facilitated diffusion .
3. Osmosis-the diffusion of water
across a selectively permeable
membrance from a region of
higher water concentration to
the region of lower
concentration .
- Types of solution according
to TONICITY-the degree to
which conditions cause fluids to move into or out the cell.
- A.isotonic solution-equal concentration of water on both sides of
the membrance .
- B.hypertonic sulotion –lesser water and greater solute
concentration outside the cell than inside.
 - C.hypertonic solution-greater water and lesser solute
concentration outside the cell than inside.
A cell contains a solution of approximately 75%
water(SOLVENT) and 25%
SOLUTE,glucose,amino,acids,salts,hormones,gases vitamins
and others.

4.

Filtration – is the pushing of

substances through a barrier in
thye body, filtration is important in
pushing substances out the capillaries- the smallest blood vessels.
5. Bulk flow- is a streaming of molecules caused by a pressure difference in
the body, both gases and fluids move by bulk flow.
- As a person breathes, gas molecules in air stream into and out of
the lungs by bulk flow.
- As the heart contracts, blood flows through blood vessels and
water and the other substances in the blood move by bulk flow.
ACTIVE PROCESSES- move subtances against concentration gradient from
regions of lower to higher concentrations.
Requires the cell to use energy from ATP.

1. Active transport- requires membrane proteins that are both enzymes and
carriers
- Essential for normal animal cell function because passive processes
such as diffusion and osmosis cannot concentrate substance
against a gradient.
Example: Potassium pump- for polarization of nerve and muscle cells. Active
transport counteract diffusion by pumping NA+ out
of cells and K back into them.
2. Endocytosis- needs ATP
- Visicles form by invagination of a cell
membrane to surround substance on
the outside of the cell.
- Such visicles pinch of from the plasma
membrane.
a. Phagocytosis – from the greek word
“phagein”- to eat .
- If the material that is brought into the cell is an organism or some
other fragment of organic
matter.
b. Pinocytosis- from the greek word
“pinein”- to drink
- If the material brought into the
cell is liquid. Contains dissolved
molecules.
3. Exocytosis – reverse of endocytosis.
- During this process, a cell discharges material by packaging it in a
vesicle and moving the vesicle to the cell surface.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERAL CHEMISTRY

ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

ATOM – is derived from the Greek word “atomos”, meaning indivisible or unable to be cut.

DEMOCRITUS – a philosopher who believed that matter was composed of fundamentally indivisible particles called
“atomos”.

ATOMS

 Are the basic building blocks of matter

 Smallest units of an element

 Are the smallest particle of an element which retains the chemical properties of that element

 ELEMENT – composed of only one kind of atom

Example: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Iron, Calcium

 COMPOUND – atoms of two or more elements combine in different arrangements

Example: table salt, Carbon Dioxide, water

Fundamental Particles:

 Electron – is a negatively charged particle, with a charge of -1.602 x 10 -19 Coulombs (C)

 Proton – has a charge of +1 electron charge (or, +1.602 x 10 -19 C)

 Neutron – electrically neutral

Subatomic Particles

Particle Symbol Location Charge

Electron e- Orbital -1

Proton p+ Nucleus 1

Neutron n Nucleus 0

ISOTOPES

- atoms with the same number of electrons and protons but with different number of neutrons

- Atoms of the same element that differ in the number in the number of neutrons they contain are known as
isotopes.

- Example: carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 atoms

 Atomic Properties

ATOMIC RADIUS

- Is half of the distance between the centers of two atoms of that element that are just touching each other.

- The atomic radius decreases across a period from left to right and increases down a given group.

IONIZATION ENERGY

- Is the energy required to completely remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion.

- Ionization energies increase moving from left to right across a period. Ionization energy decreases moving
down a group.

ELECTRON AFFINITY

- Reflects the ability of an atom to accept an electron

- It is the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom.

- -Atoms with stronger effective nuclear charge have a greater electron affinity.

- Example group II-A elements (Alkaline earth)-low electron affinity value.

- Group VII-A elements (Halogens)-high electron affinities.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

- Is a measure of the attraction of an atom for the electrons in a chemical bond, the higher electronegativity of
an atom, the greater its attraction for bonding electrons.
 - -It is related to ionization energy. Electrons with low ionization energy have low electronegativities because
their nuclei do not exert a strong attractive force on electron.

IONIC AND COVALENT BOND

 IONIC BOND

- Is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.

 COVALENT BOND

- Forms when electrons are shared between atoms.

 MOLECULAR PERSPECTIVE OF CHEMISTRY

MATTER: Matter is defined as the physical material of universe; it is anything that occupies space and has mass.

PURE SUBSTANCES

A. ELEMENTS are the simplest form of matter and cannot be decomposed to simpler substances. At present time,
there are 114 known elements. (Chemical symbols are used to denote the different elements. Symbols consist of one
or two letter. They are derived from their English name, Latin or Greek name.)

Example: H, N, Cu, Co, Mg, K, Fe.

CLASSFICATION OF ELEMENTS

 METALS. These are good conductors of electricity that shows metallic luster and malleable.
 NON-METALS. These are non-conductors of heat and electricity. They show no metallic luster and are not
malleable.
 METALLOIDS. These have both property of metal and non-metals. They are also known as BORDERLINE
ELEMENTS.
 INERT GASES/NOBLE GASES. They are non-metals that are gases at room temperature. They are He, Ne, Ar,
Kr, Xe, Rn.

B. COMPOUNDS are matters that are composed of two or more elements which are chemically combined which can
be decomposed into simpler substances.

Example: Vinegar, salt, rust (ferric oxide), Ferrous sulfate.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPOUNDS

 ACID – is a substance whose water solution has a sour taste, turns blue litmus paper red, neutralize bases
reacts with active metal to form hydrogen. Example: HCl – hydrochloric acid. HNO3 – nitric acid. HClO-
hypocholous acid (Clorox)
 BASE – is a substance whose water solution has a bitter taste, turns red litmus paper blue, feels soapy and
neutralize acids. Example: NaOH- sodium hydroxide. KOH – potassium hydroxide. Mg(OH)2- magnesium
hydroxide.
 SALT – are substance produced from neutralization of acids and bases. Example: NaCl- sodium chloride (from
NaOH and Cl). MgCl2 – magnesium chloride (Mg(OH)2 and Cl)

MOLECULAR FORMULA, STRUCTURAL AND EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

 MOLECULAR FORMULAS – refer to the actual number of the different atoms which comprise a single
molecule of a compound.
 EMPIRICAL FORMULA – refers to the smallest whole ratios of atoms in a particular compound.
 STRUCTURAL FORMULAS give an idea about the connections between atoms, but they don’t necessarily give
information about the actual geometry of such bonds.
WHAT ARE HYDROCARBONS?

 These are compounds that only contain carbon and hydrogen atom.
 They are considered as the simplest type of organic compound – because of the simple molecular structure.
 Hydrocarbons with few atoms to their molecules are GASES.
 Hydrocarbons with many atoms are LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS.
 Hydrocarbons to alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are called ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS.
 Examples are propane gases, kerosene, gasoline, petroleum jelly, rubber and grease.

HYDROCARBONS (SATURATED)

 The alkane series is called the SATURATED HYDROCARBONS SERIES.

 Chemical formula for saturated hydrocarbons: CnH2n+2

HYDROCARBONS (UNSATURATED)

 The alkene series of hydrocarbons is characterized by having one double bond in the carbon chain of each
molecule. The first member of this series is Ethane, C2H4 also known as Ethylene.
 Chemical formula for unsaturated: CnH2n
ALKANES

 Hydrocarbons having no double or triple bond. If the carbon atoms are arrange in chain they are Alkanes, if
arranged in rings they are CYCLOALKANES.
 Chemical formula for alkanes: CnH2n+2
 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons which contain only single bonds and they are also called ALIPHATIC or
CYCLIC ALKANES (Alkanes without rings) example of these are ethane and methane.

SOURCES OF ALKANES AND CYCLOALKANES

1. Petroleum – natural gas

2. Fossil Fuel
3. Coal

NOMECLATURE OF ALKANES

Number of Atoms Prefix

1 Meth
2 Eth
3 Prop
4 But
5 Pent
6 Hex
7 Hept
8 Oct
 9 Non
10 Dec
11 Undec
12 Dodec

ALKYL GROUPS OR ALKYL HALIDES (HALOALKANES)

o Compounds where a halogen atom/s are attached to a tetrahedral carbon atoms

o Higher melting and boiling points
o Inability to form hydrogen bonds
o Insoluble in water but are soluble in non-polar solvents such as ether or chloroform

ALKENES

 These are hydrocarbons that contain carbon-carbon double bonds.

 They are unsaturated hydrocarbons
 Boiling and melting point decreases with increasing molecular weight
 Simplest members are the propene, ethane, butane, and pentene.
ALKYNES

 These are hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-carbon triple bond

 Chemical formula: CnH2n-2

AROMATIC COMPOUNDS (ARENES)

 Compounds found in such pleasant-smelling substances such as oil of vanilla, wintergreen and cinnamon.
 Used for drugs and other chemicals
 Properties are-they have high degree of unsaturation but are resistant to addition reactions.
 They favour electrophilic substitution reaction
 These compounds are usually stable
 They have a low heat of hydrogenation and low heat of combustion
 They are cyclic compounds
COMPOUNDS WITH OXYGEN

 ALCOHOL – large class of compounds containing the hydroxyl group

 Chemical formula for alcohol: ROH
 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

PROPERTIES OF WATER

THE WATER (H2O) MOLECULE

WATER

- Most abundant substance in living organisms and/or systems

- Makes up 70% of the weight of most forms of life

- It is the medium in which the transport of nutrients, the enzyme-catalyzed reactions of metabolism, and
the transfer of chemical energy occur.

- It has higher melting point, boiling point, and heat of vaporization than most common liquids.

- It is the universal solvent.

- A water molecule is polar because there is an uneven distribution of electrons between the oxygen and
hydrogen atoms.

- Water molecules have a limited tendency to dissociate (ionize) into H + and OH- ions.

Law of Mass Action

 Applies to the state of equilibrium existing in reversible reactions.

 States that, “the rate, at which a reaction takes place, at constant temperature, is proportional to the
product of the concentration or the reacting substances.”

Example of a reversible reaction:

 The velocity of reaction 1 depends on the product of the concentrations of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid.

 where: K1 = constant
 The velocity of reaction 2 depends on the product of the concentrations of ethyl acetate and water.
  where: K2 = constant

At equilibrium:

Reaction 1 = Reaction 2, so V1 = V2

Dissociation of Water

Applying the Law of Mass Action

KW = dissociation constant for water

= approx. equal to 1 x 10-14 at room temperature

 A water molecule can react to form ions. This reaction can be summarized by a chemical equation in which
double arrows are used to show that the reaction can occur in either direction.

 How does this happen? In pure water, about 1 water molecule in 550 million reacts and forms ions. Because
the number of positive hydrogen ions produced is equal to the number of negative hydroxide ions produced,
water is neutral.

The Concept of pH

Definition of pH:

 It is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

 It is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration.

The pH Scale

 Used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.

  The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. At a pH of 7, the concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is
equal.

 Solutions with a pH below 7 are called acidic because they have more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.

 The lower the pH, the greater the acidity.

 Solutions with a pH above 7 are called basic because they have more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions. The
higher the pH, more basic the solution.

What is an ACID?

 Acid is a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. It basically tastes sour.

What is a BASE?

 Base is a substance that gives hydroxide ions (OH-). They are bitter tasting and slippery like soap.

Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and Thomas Martin Lowry defined Acid and Base as:

1. Acid is any substance that donates or gives off proton (H+) or they are proton donors.

2. Base is any substance that combines with protons or they are proton acceptors.

 A proton donor and its corresponding proton acceptor make up a conjugate acid-base pair.

 An acid-base reaction always involves a conjugate acid-base pair.

  HCl is an acid that gives off a proton. Water molecule is a base which accepts the proton given off by the
acid. As a product in the chemical reaction, the Conjugate acid is the one which accepted the Hydrogen ion
while the Conjugate base lost a hydrogen ion.

Remember!

 For every ACID, there is a CONJUGATE BASE.

 For every BASE, there is a CONJUGATE ACID.

 Acetic Acid, a proton donor, and the acetic anion, the corresponding proton acceptor, constitute a conjugate
acid-base pair.
 Each acid has a characteristic tendency to lose its proton in an aqueous solution.

 Weak Acids – acids that have only a slight tendency to give up protons to water.

 Strong Acids – acids that readily give up their protons. These are completely ionized in dilute aqueous
solution.

Example:

 Hydrochloric Acid, Sulfuric Acid, and Nitric Acids (inorganic), Acetoacetic Acid, Lactic Acid (organic).

 Strong bases like NaOH and KOH are completely organized.

 Weak acids and bases are not completely ionized when dissolved in water.

 Strong acids will lower the pH greatly while weak acids will lower it slightly.

 The tendency of any acid HA to lose a proton and form its conjugate base A is defined by the equilibrium
constant Ka for the reversible reaction:

Where Ka refers to the dissociation constant or ionization constant of the acid.

 The stronger the acid, the greater is its tendency to lose its proton, so the higher will be its
dissociation constant or Ka.
 The weaker the acid, the lower the dissociation constant, the lower the Ka.
INDICATORS

- An indicator is used to determine the end point of an acid-base reaction.

- It is a very weak organic acid or base which undergoes a change of structure and a consequent change of
color in the presence of certain concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.

What are BUFFERS?

BUFFERS

 Aqueous system that tends to resist changes in their pH when small amounts of acid (H+) or base (OH-) are
added.

 A buffer system consists of a weak acid (the proton donor) and its conjugate base (the proton acceptor), or
of weak bases and their conjugate acids.

 Buffers help in the regulation of body pH such that it is compatible with most cells.

 pH of a buffer solution may be determined by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:

 According to the previous equation, the pH of a buffer solution is determined by two things, namely:

› 1. Value of pKa

› 2. Ratio of salt to acid concentration

› The lower the value of the pKa of the buffer equation, the lower is the pH of the solution.

› The higher the concentration of salt relative to the acid, the higher is the pH of the buffer solution.

COLLOIDAL STATE by Thomas Graham

2 Categories:

1. Crystalloids – those substances that diffused readily through parchment and other membranes.
 2. Colloids – those substances that did not pass through parchment because of their large size: however, they
are not large enough to settle out by gravity, as suspension are.

TWO PHASES OF A COLLOIDS SYSTEM:

1. DISPERSED PHASE – refers to the finely divided particles; SOLUTION.

2. DISPERSION MEDIUM – the medium in which the particles are suspended; SOLVENT.

*Both phases may be solids, liquids, or gases, with a single exception: it is not possible to have a colloidal
dispersion of a gas in a gas.

Smoke is a solid dispersed in a gas, fog is a liquid dispersed in a gas, and froths and foams are gases
dispersed in liquids.

TYPES OF COLLOIDS

1. EMULSIODS OR LYOPHILIC COLLOIDS (SOLVENT-LOVING)

- They have great attraction for the dispersion medium. Each particle has a layer of the dispersion
medium surrounding it – this is called hydration shell.

Examples: starch, albumin, blood proteins, soap and gelatin.

2. SUSPENSOIDS OR LYOPHOBIC COLLOIDS (SOLVENT-HATING)

- They do not have attraction towards the dispersion medium, so they do not have a layer of the
dispersion medium around them.

Examples: colloidal metals, e.g., gold, silver, platinum, etc.

 BIO-MOLECULES CATEGORIZED AS CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, LIPIDS AND NUCLEIC ACIDS

CARBOHYDRATES

 -the “staff of life” for most organism

 -most abundant compounds found in nature

 -they are also commonly known as SACCHARIDES

 -also serve as an important source of chemical energy for living organisms

 -they are also called POLYHYDROXYALDEHYDES OR POLYHYDROXYKETONES

TWO MAJOR BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

AS A STORAGE FORM OF FUEL

-glucose is major source of energy in our body

-starch is the chief storage form of carbohydrates in most plants

-glycogen is the chief storage carbohydrates in animals

AS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

- Cellulose is the structural component of the rigid cell walls and the fibrous and woody tissues of
plants

- Acid mucopolysaccharides and proteogylcans are important structural polysaccharides in animal

tissues

 CHEMICAL FORMULA : (CH2O)n

Where:

C is Carbon

H is Hydrogen

O is Oxygen

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

a. Monosaccharide

b. Disaccharides

c. Polysaccharides
 d. Derived Carbohydrates

 
MONOSACCHARIDES

 They are the simple sugars

 basic unit of carbohydrates

 made up of one sugar

 simplest carbohydrates because they cannot be hydrolyzed to form water

 they are identified to the number of carbon atoms or whether they have an Aldehyde or Keto group

 monosaccharide in appearance tend to be colorless and crystalline, dissolve easily in water

 they are sweet tasting but not all

 include Glucose (dextrose), Fructose (fruit sugar), Galactose (found in milk), Ribose and Formaldehyde

Chemical Formula: CnH2nOn

Chemical Formula of Glucose, Fructose and Galactose : C 6(H2O)6

 the monosaccharide structures are represented as open chains to show the aldehyde and keto group

 they can also exists as cyclic structures

ALDEHYDE AND KETO

 ALDEHYDE GROUP

 -C-H

 ll

 O

 KETO GROUP

 -C-

 ll

 O

 Remember this formula to identify whether the Monosaccharide is an Aldehyde or a Keto group.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS

1. Triose - carbon atom of 3

2. Tetrose – 4
 3. Pentose – 5

4. Hexose – 6

5. Heptose – 7

6. Octose – 8

7. Nonose – 9

8. Decose - 10

DISACCHARIDES

 compounds sugars or oligosaccharides

 contain two sugar units

 the creation of a disaccharide involves the union of two monosaccharide that undergo a process in which a
water molecule is removed as part of the union

SUCROSE

 combination of glucose and fructose

 commonly known as table sugar

 found in sugar cane and sugar beets

 the linkage between carbon 1 of glucose and carbon 2 of fructose is called an alpha- 1,2 linkage

 sucrose is not a reducing sugar because it does not have a free aldehyde or ketone group.

 Chemical Formula: Sucrose, Lactose and Maltose:

 C12H22O11

LACTOSE

 combination of glucose and galactose

 also called milk sugar

 found only in the milk of mammals

 cow’s milk contains about 4% to 5% lactose; whereas human milk contains about 6% to 8% lactose

 the linkage between carbon 1 of galactose in the alpha form and carbon 4 of glucose is called an alpha - 1, 4
linkage

MALTOSE

 combination of glucose and glucose

 it is also called malt sugar, the ingredient for brewing beer

 used in the creation of soft candies, such as chocolates and fruit-based treats

 the bond in maltose is between carbon 1 of glucose in the alpha form and carbon 4 on another glucose, the
linkage is called alpha-1,4.
  Lactose and maltose are reducing sugar.

 Reducing sugar is a sugar that forms aldehyde or ketone in basic solutions.

POLYSACCHARIDES

 the linked of one or more sugar molecules into a large molecules

 also known as glycose,are polymers of monosaccharides

 they are made up of hundreds and even thousands of monosaccharides linked together in many different
arrangements

 they are also known as Glycerides 

 Chemical Formula: - (C6H10O5) - n this is also the chemical formula of starch, glycogen and cellulose
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYSACCHARIDES

1) HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES- are made of a single type of monosaccharide

2) HOMOSACCHARIDE- is called a GLUCAN, consists only of glucose units and a GALACTAN consists only of
galactose units

3) HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES- are polymers that are made up of more thanone type of monosaccharides.

IMPORTANT POLYSACCHARIDES:

1. STARCH

 found in many plants, such as potatoes and cereal grains also in roots, tubers and seeds

 yields 10%-20% amylase and 80%-90% amylopectin when heated with water

 AMYLOSE - is a large linear polysaccharide whose glucose units are connected in linkages between C1 and
C4.

Sources of starch
2. GLYCOGEN

 stored sugar in animals

 found in liver and muscles in the body

 Glycogen formed from glucose is very important because glucose is the ideal source of energy for all cells in
the body.

 Glycogen is an example of polysaccharides in animals.

 Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen

 Glycogen is similar structure to starch because both are made of glucose monomers.

3. CELLULOSE

 is a glucose polymer connected to beta linkages between C1 and C4

 it is important part of the diet

 it cannot be digested but aids in the excretion of food wastes

 it helps food move through the intestine

 makes up the main structural support for plants

 cellulose fibers are strong and rigid

DERIVED CARBOHYDRATES

Obtained by certain chemical reactions on sugars

a. OXIDATION PRODUCT - sugar acids

b. REDUCTION PRODUCT - sugar alcohol

c. AMINO ACIDS - example glucosamine, galactosamin

d. DEOXYSUGARS - D-2-deoxyribose

ISOMERISM - are compounds having the same molecular formula but with different structures(arrangement)

Example: n-Butane and Isobutane

  Butane and n-Butane have both the same chemical formula (C4H10) but differ in boiling point.
 This is the isomers of butane
 A carbon atom to which 4 different atoms or groups of atom are attached is said to be ASYMMETRIC.

STEREOISOMERS

STEREOISOMERS - compounds which identical in composition and differ only in spatial configuration

 Same molecular formula, same functional groups

 Differ in the way atoms are oriented in 3 dimensions
  Carbon atom to which 4 different atoms or groups are attached

TWO ISOMERS OF GLUCOSE ONE IN WHICH IS THE MIRROR IMAGE

CHO CHO

I I

HO---C---H H---C ---OH

I I

H---C---OH OH—C ---H

I I

HO—C—H H—C--OH

I I

HO—C –H H—C---OH

I I

CH2OH CH 2OH

L-GLUCOSE D-GLUCOSE

EPIMERS - differ n one carbon atom

- Sugars which differ from one another only in the configuration around a single carbon atom.

Examples are Galactose and Glucose

 
REDUCING ACTION OF SUGARS

 Sugar containing a potentially free aldehyde or ketone group is capable of reducing certain oxidizing agents.
The favorite type of reagent is an alkaline cupric solution. After the reaction, the sugar is oxidized to its
corresponding sugar acid (aldonic) and the cupric ions are reduced to cuprous a ions usually and the
formation of yellow to brick precipitates.

 FEHLING’s TEST

 BENEDICT’S TEST

 BARFOED’S TEST

FERMENTATION OF SUGARS

 FERMENTATION is the decompositions of an organic substance, usually a carbohydrate, produced by the

enzymes of a living organism. The common monosaccharide, D-glucose, D-fructose and D-mannose, are
readily fermented by ordinary baker’s yeast and D-galactose is fermented by especially cultured yeast. In
ordinary fermentation, alcohol and carbon dioxide represent the main and products.

CARBOHYDRATES METABOLISM

 Definition of METABOLISM- it is the sum total of all the physical and chemical processes by which living
matter is produced and maintained.

 Is a highly coordinated purposeful activity

 Interrelated multienzyme system

FUNCTIONS OF METABOLISM

A. to obtain chemical energy from fuel molecule or from absorbed sunlight

B. to convert exogenous nutrients into building blocks or precursors of macromolecular cell components

C. to assemble such building blocks into proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and other cell components

D. to form and degrade biomolecules required in specialized functions of cells.

TWO MAJOR PHASES OF METABOLISM

 CATABOLISM- this is the degradative phase of metabolism

- Energy giving

- breaking down large molecule into a smaller molecules

- Energy producing

 ANABOLISM- also called biosynthesis

 Is the building up phase of metabolism, the enzymatic biosynthesis of such molecular components of
cells as nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides and lipids from their simple building-block
precursors.

 Energy requiring

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

 Carbohydrates form the chief source of energy in man and many animals. In adult man CHO supplies
approximately 60% by weight of the total food intake and about 50% of the total daily caloric requirement.

 The major function of carbohydrates in metabolism is as FUEL

 Utilized by cells mainly in the form of GLUCOSE.

  Most abundant carbohydrates ingested by human beings are the POLYSACCHARDIE starch and cellulose.

A. DIGESTION IN MOUTH

 Digestion of carbohydrates starts at the mouth.

 In the mouth, food undergoes MASTICATION.
 During Mastication, food comes in contact with SALIVA (secreted by salivary gland).
 SALIVA contain salivary amylase (ptyalin)

ACTION OF SALIVARY AMYLASE

 It requires Cl- ion for activation and pH 6.7

 The enzyme hydrolyses a-(1-4) glycosidic bonds at random deep inside polysaccharides (starch, glycogen).
 Producing dextrin, maltose, maltotriose, glucose.

B. DIGESTION IN STOMACH

 Digestion of carbohydrates temporarily stops here.

 The action of ptyalin stops here sue to high acidity of stomach
 No CHO splitting enzymes in gastric juice
 However HCl present in the stomach causes hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose

C. DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINE (DUODENUM)

 Food bolus in duodenum mixes with pancreatic juice

 Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase, similar to salivary amylase
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

REMEMBER:

 Monosaccharides like glucose(dextrose or corn sugar) fructose (fruit sugar) and galactose---digested rapidly

 Disaccharides like sucrose (table sugar) lactose (milk sugar) and maltose ---digested quite quickly

 Polysaccharides like starch---longer to digest

 Cellulose (indigestible plant fiber) –cannot be digested at all.