LECTURE ONE

ELECTROSTATICS
1.0 Introduction
Electrostatics is the branch of science that deals with the electrical phenomena that arises from
stationary electric charges. There are two kinds of electric charge: positive charge (+) and
negative charge (-). Like charges repel each other, while unlike charges attract each other.
Objects can be charged, either positively or negatively, by the removal or addition of electrons.
A hard rubber rod rubbed vigorously with fur and then suspended by a nonmetallic thread will
attract a glass rod that has been rubbed with silk. On the other hand, if two charged rubber rods
or two charged glass rods) are brought near each other, the two repel each other. This shows that
rubber and glass are in two different states of electrification. The electric charge on the rubber
rod is called negative and that on the glass rod is called positive.

1.1 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that in free space, oppositely charged bodies attract each other, while
similarly charged bodies repel with a force that varies directly as the product of the magnitude of
each charge and inversely as the square of the distance between them, the force being directed
along the line joining the charges.

If two particles carrying charges Q 1 and Q2 are separated by a distance ri2 in a vacuum as shown
in Figure 1.1, then the electric force exerted by the particle with charge Q1 on the particle with
charge Q2 is given as
Q1 Q2
F ❑12 ∝ 2
r 12

kQ1 Q 2
F ❑12= 2
r 12

where k is the constant of proportionality and Fi2 is the force exerted by Q 2 onQ 1 .
Figure 1.1: Coulomb’s law

In vector notation the Coulomb’s law can be written as

Q1 Q2
F ❑12= 2 r 12
|r 12|
r 12
Where r^ 12= is the unit vector along r 12
|r 12|
And
1 −12 2 −2
k= =9× 10 N m C
4 π εo
Whereε o=8.85 ×10−12 C 2 N −1 m−2

If the charges are similar (i.e., both positive or both negative), F12 is positive and it is a force of
repulsion while if they are unlike charges, F12 is negative and is a force of attraction.

1.2 Electric Field Strength

An electric field can be defined as a region where a stationary charged particle experiences an
electric force. It can be mapped out by lines of electric force. A line of force, also called electric
flux, may 1 Refined as a line that the tangent to it at a point P is in the direction of the force on a
small position charge placed at P. Figure 1.2 shows electric field lines of force around a positive
and a negative charge. The lines originate from the positive charge in Figure 11.2b and terminate
in the negative charge Figure 1.2a shows the repulsive lines of force when two positive charges
are close to each other.

Figure 1.2: Electric field lines

The properties of the electric lines of force include:
 The electric lines of force are drawn such that the magnitude of the electric field is
proportional to the number of lines crossing a unit area perpendicular to the lines.
 The tangent to the lines of force at every point gives the direction of the field at that
point.
  The lines of force are continuous and they start on positive charges and end only on
negative charges.
 Lines of force do not touch or intersect one another.

The electric field strength at any point is defined as the force per unit charge which it exerts at
that point,
F
E= −−−−−−−−−−−1.3
qo
where q0 is the test charge placed at the point.

If a point charge Q is located at a distance r away from a test charge q o at point P, then the force
exerted on the test charge due to the charge Q, according to Coulomb’s law, is
kQ q
F= 2 o r^
r

where r^ is a unit vector pointing from Q to q o Using Equation 1.3, we have?

F kO
E= = 2 r^ −−−−−−−−−−−1.4
qo r
The unit of the electric field strength is newton per coulomb (N/C).

1.3 Electric Field of Continuous Charge Distribution

To evaluate the electric field created by a continuous charge distribution, we first divide the
charge distribution into small elements; each of which contains a small charge ∆ q, as shown in
Figure 1.3. We then use Equation 1.4 to calculate the electric field due to one of these elements
at a point P. Finally, we evaluate the total field at P due to the charge distribution by summing
the contributions of all the charge elements,
k ∆q
∆ E= 2 r^ −−−−−−−−−1.5
r
where r is the distance from the small charge element ∆ q to point P and r^ is the unit vector
directed from the charge element toward P.

The electric field at P to a continuous charge distribution ∆ E due to all the sum of the
elements ∆ q of the charge distribution.
Figure 1.3: Continuous charge distribution
The total electric field at P due to all elements in the charge distribution is
∆ qi dq
E=k lim ∑ 2 r^ =k ∫ 2 r^ −−−−−−−−1.6
∆q→0 i ri r
where the integration is over the entire charge distribution.

For example, if a charge Q is uniformly distributed along a line of length l (Figure 1.4), the linear
charge density λ is defined by
Q
λ=
l
where the units of λ is coulombs per metre (C/m).

Figure 1.4: Electric field due to a charged rod

Consider a segment of the rod dx having charge dq=λdx . The field dE at point P due to this
length dx of the rod (at x) has magnitude
dq 1 λdx
dE=k 2 =
x 4 π εo x 2

| |
l+a l+ a l+a
λ
E=∫ dE= ∫ dx = λ −1
4 π εo a x 4 π εo x
a a
 E=
1 Q 1
( −
1
=) Q
4 π ε o l a l+ a 4 π ε o a(l+a)

However, if a charge Q is uniformly distributed on a surface of area A, the surface charge

density σ is defined by
Q
σ=
A
Where the units of σ is coulombs per square metre (C/m2), and if the charge Q is uniformly
distributed throughout a volume V, the volume density p is defined by
Q
ρ=
V
Where the units of ρ is coulombs per cubic metre (C/m3).

Figure 1.5: Continuous charge distribution of various symmetry.

If in Equation 1.6 the charge dq is a volume charge distribution, we consider the element
dq= pdV that is small enough to be considered as a point charge. The total electric field E at a
point P will then be given as
ρdV
E=k ∫ 2 r^
r
If it is a surface charge distribution, we have
σdA
E=k ∫ 2 r^
r
1.4: Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field
When a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an electric field E, the charge experiences a
force of magnitude qE . This force can cause the body to accelerate according to Newton’s
second law of motion i.e., F=qE=ma (provided the electric force is the only force exerted on
the particle).

Figure 1.7: Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field

The acceleration of the particle is therefore
qE
a=
m
If E is constant in magnitude and direction, that is uniform, then the acceleration a is constant. If
the particle is positively charged, then its acceleration is in the direction of the electric field. If
the particle is negatively charged, then its acceleration is in the direction opposite the electric
field.

1.6 Electric Flux

The electric flux is defined as the product of electric field intensity. E and the area A
perpendicular to the field. The electric flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines
penetrating a surface. For an electric field that is uniform in both magnitude and direction, the
electric flux Φ E (uppercase Greek phi) is defined as
Φ E =EAcosθ

Figure 1.8: Electric flux through a uniform electric field E

Where Ecosθ is the component of E along the perpendicular to the area (Figure 1.8).
The S.I. units of Φ E is newton-meters squared per coulomb (Nm2/C).

In more general situations, the electric field may vary over a surface, Figure 1.6. Imagine that the
surface is divided up into a large number of small elements, each of area Φ E . If the element of
area Φ E is crossed by an electric field E, in the direction which makes an angle θ with the normal
to the area, then the electric flux Φ E crossing the area Δ A is given by
Φ E =E Δ Acos θ=E ∙ Δ A
where we have used the definition of a scalar product of two vectors ( A ∙ B=AB cosθ ).

Figure 1.6: Electric flux through a curved surface

The net flux
Φ E =∑ Φ E=∮ E ∙ dA=∮ Ecos θ dA
1.7 Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law states that the net flux through any closed surface is
Q
Φ E =∮ E ∙ dA= ¿
εo
Where Q¿ represents the net charge inside the surface, E represents the electric field at any point
on the surface and ε o is the same constant (permittivity of free space) that appears in Coulomb’s
law.

Figure 1.7 Point charge Q at the center

Gauss Law states that the total electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed divided by the permittivity. The electric flux in an area is defined as the electric field
multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a plane and perpendicular to the field.
Let us see how Gauss’s law is related to Coulomb’s law. Figure 1.7 shows a single isolated
charge Q. The Gaussian surface for this point charge is an imaginary sphere of radius r centered
on the charge. Since the imaginary sphere is symmetrical about the charge at its centre, we know
that E must have the same magnitude at any point on the surface, and that E points radically
outward parallel to d A , an element of the surface area. We can therefore write Gauss’s law as
∮ E ∙ dA=E∮ dA=E(4 π r 2)
Note that the surface area of a sphere of radius r is4 π r 2 , and the magnitude of E is the same at
all points on the Gaussian spherical surface. Equation 11.32 then becomes
Q
=∮ E ∙ dA=E=(4 π r )
2
ε0
Solving for E we obtain
Q
E=
4 π εo r2
which is the electric field form of Coulomb’s law?
We can also do the reverse, that is, we can derive Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s law for static
electric charges. Consider a single point charge Q shown in Figure 11.8 and an imaginary
spherical surface Au which is symmetrical.

Figure 1.8: A single point charge.

The figure shows an imaginary spherical surface around the charge. From Coulomb’s law, we
have
1 Q Q Q
∮ E ∙ dA=∮ 4 π ε r 2 dA= 4 π ε r 2 ( 4 π r 2 ) = ε
o o 0

This is Gauss’s law.

We can also have unsymmetrical Gaussian surface marked as A2 in Figure 1.8. The same number
of field lines pass through both surfaces ( A1 ∧A 2 ) , therefore the flux through A2 is the same as
through A1:
 A2
Q
∮ E ∙ dA= ε
A1 o

This shows that

Q
∮ E ∙ dA= ε
o

would be valid for any surface surrounding a single point charge Q.

Note:
• The net flux through any closed surface is independent of the shape of that surface.
• The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge q is given by q /ε o .
• The net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no charge is zero.

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