SRI VIGNESH VIDYALAYA SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL, KOOTHUR

CLASS : XII (2023 - 2024)

SUBJECT: PHYSICS PRACTICALS

EX.NO.1

RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL OF THE GIVEN WIRES BY PLOTTING A GRAPH FOR

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE VERSUS CURRENT

AIM:
To determine resistivity of the material of the given wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference versus current.

WHAT YOU REQUIRE:

Three long uniform homogeneous resistance wires each stretched between two points on an
insulating board provided with terminals to make connections and a metre scale to measure
length, an acid accumulator, voltmeter (0 - 3V), a rheostat (10 ohm), an ammeter (0- 100 mA), a
plug key (one way), connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT:

1. Clean the ends of connecting wires by rubbing them with sandpaper.

2. Remove plug from the single way plug key and arrange the apparatuses battery, key,
rheostat, resistance wire (AB/CD/EF), ammeter and voltmeter as shown in figure.

3. Make connections as shown in Fig. taking care in connecting the positive terminals of the
metres. Remember that current always enters in a meter from its positive terminal.

4. See that pointer stays at zero mark in a meter. If it is not so, adjust the position of the pointer
at zero using a screwdriver and zero adjusting screw of the meter.(You can take help from your
teacher or laboratory assistant for this step).

5. Read the maximum value marked on the scale of a metre (x) and count the total number of
divisions on the scale (N). Then dividing x by N, you can find out the least count of the
measuring device. Thus, find out the least count of ammeter and voltmeter.

6. Adjust the sliding contact of rheostat for maximum resistance position of voltage across the
resistance wire.
7. Insert plug in the key and check that pointers in meters deflect in clockwise direction. If it is
not so, you need to reverse the connections at the terminals of the metre. Adjust the rheostat
for maximum deflection within the range.

8. Take at least five readings of voltmeter and ammeter by changing the position of the sliding
contact of rheostat. Record ammeter and voltmeter readings.

9. Repeat the experiment for the wire numbers 2 and 3 respectively.

10. Record observations in the table.

11. Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V) and the current (I) flowing
through the wire taking voltmeter readings on y- axis and ammeter readings on x-axis.

12. Find the least count and zero error of the given screw gauge and measure the diameter of
the wire at different places along its length, in two mutually perpendicular directions at each
place.

RESULT:

1. The potential difference (V) versus current (I) graph for the given wires are straight lines
passing through the origin.
2. The resistivity of the material of given wires = —-------- Ωm.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Measuring instruments of proper range and least count as per the requirement of the
experiment should be selected.
2. The instruments you are using are normally quite delicate. Wrong connections and
mishandling may damage some of them. So, draw the circuit diagram in the beginning of the
experiment and get it checked by your teacher.
3. While making connections, keep the plug of the key, insert the plug in the key only while
taking observations.
4. Before plugging in the key make sure that all connections are right and tight - ammeter in
series, voltmeter in parallel and current entering in each terminal.
5. The accumulator used should be fully charged and the unknown external resistance should
have higher resistance than the internal resistance of the accumulator.
6. Take care that short circuiting does not take place and excessive current is not drawn from
the battery.
7. Everytime you shift contact points on the wire, check that the connections at jockey are not
loosened.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Wire not be of uniform cross - section
2. Connections may not be tight or contact resistance may vary.
3. Zero adjustment might not be proper.
4. Faults in the calibration of metres.
5. Personal errors.

DIAGRAM

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Name of the material of the wire = —----------

2. Standard value of resistivity of wires = —-----------
3. Range of ammeter = —---------- A to —---------
4. Least count of ammeter = —------- mA = —-------- A
5. Range of voltmeter = —--------- V to —---------- V
6. Least count of voltmeter = —-------- V

GRAPH
TABLE FOR ELECTRIC CURRENT (I) AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V)

Length of wire number (l) = —----- cm = —-------- m

 S. No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
(V) (A)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

CALCULATIONS

ρ = RA/l

R = ρl / π r2

******************

EX.NO.2

RESISTANCE OF A GIVEN WIRE/STANDARD RESISTOR USING A METRE BRIDGE

AIM :
To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using a metre bridge.

WHAT YOU REQUIRE :

A metre bridge, a long wire about 1 m (of the material whose resistance is to be
determined), a rheostat, a resistance box(50 ohm), a jockey, one way key, a galvanometer, a
lead accumulator, screw gauge, thick connecting wires,sandpaper and metre scale.

THEORY:

If the galvanometer of metre bridge set-up shows zero deflection when resistance
introduced in the resistance box is R and the jockey is at position B such that AB = l cm, then
the unknown resistance

X = R(100- l) Ω
l
However, if we interchange the positions of unknown resistance (X) and resistance box (R)
then

X= __Rl____Ω
(100- l)

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Draw the circuit diagram in your notebook as shown in figure.

2. Arrange battery, one way key, rheostat, galvanometer, unknown resistance, resistance box
and jockey as shown in figure.

3. Make the ends of connecting wires free of insulation and clean them by rubbing them with
sandpaper. Make tight connections. Remove plug from the plug key and tighten all the plugs in
the resistance box. Use sufficiently long wire as per diagram connecting galvanometer with
jockey.

4. Introduce a suitable resistance say R is equal to 10 ohm by taking out the corresponding plug
from the resistance box. Plug in the key K so as to complete the battery circuit. Check that the
galvanometer gives deflection in one direction when the jockey is pressed at some point near
end A and in opposite direction when it is pressed on the wire near end C. In case you get
same side deflection in either case, seek the help of your teacher to rectify the error in your
connections.

5. Now press the Jockey nearly in the middle of the wire (between 30 cm mark and 70 cm mark)
and adjust resistance in the resistance box such that a near null point is obtained in the
galvanometer. Now move the jockey and obtain an exact null in the galvanometer. Note this
position of the jockey on the scale.

6. Repeat the above steps four times more by introducing different resistances in the resistance
box. The values of resistance in each case being such that the null point is obtained between
30 cm mark and 70 cm mark.

7. Interchange the positions of resistance box and experimental wire and repeat step 5 for the
same five values of resistance in the resistance box in the right gap.

RESULT:

Within the limits of experimental errors, the resistance of the given wire using a metre bridge is
found to be _________ Ω.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make all connections neat, clean and tight. Use a piece of sandpaper and remove insulation
from the ends of the connecting wires.
2. Keep the flex in the resistance box tight in their sockets.
3. While taking observation, first make the main circuit on by putting plug in key K and then only
move the jockey on wire.
4. Do not keep the main circuit on all the time. Remove plug key K as soon as one observation
is completed, so that resistance is not altered due to excessive heating.
5. Move the jockey over the wire in small steps by lifting it. Do not slide it rubbing along the
wire. Also make the contact gently. Do not press it too hard on the wire.
6. Try to obtain the balance near the 50 cm mark, so that the bridge can be used in the most
sensitive state.
7. To protect the galvanometer from damage due to excessive current, use a high resistance in
series or a low resistance in parallel to it which may be subsequently removed near the null
point.
8. Keep the connecting wires straight to avoid the induction effect.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. There may be errors due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up in connections may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current flows
for some time.
4. The wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips and
connecting screws.

DIAGRAM
 OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE FOR DETERMINATION OF RESISTANCE OF THE GIVEN WIRE

S.No. Resistance When R is in the left gap

R Position of Balancing (100-l) X1' = R

balance length (l) (100-l)/l
point B
cm cm cm Ω

1.

2.

3.
 4.

5.

Mean value of the resistance wire, X = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + X5 / 5 = ------ Ω

*********************

EX.NO.3

THE GIVEN GALVANOMETER (OF KNOWN RESISTANCE AND FIGURE OF MERIT) INTO
A VOLTMETER OF DESIRED RANGE SAY 0 TO 3 V) AND TO VERIFY THE SAME

AIM:

To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of
desired range(say 0 to 3 V) and to verify the same.

WHAT YOU REQUIRED:

A pivoted type galvanometer whose resistance and figure of merit are given, a thin resistance
wire, a screw gauge, a wire cutter, a battery (lead accumulator), one way key, a resistance box
(0 Ω - 200Ω), a Mili ammeter (0 - 100 mA), connecting wires,a resistance box (0-10 kΩ), a
rheostat (0-200 Ω), a voltmeter (0-3V) and sandpaper.

FORMULA:

To convert a galvanometer into voltmeter, the resistance is connected in series with the
galvanometer. (R= V/Ig - G)

The current Ig gives full scale deflection in the galvanometer and hence it can measure
maximum V volts. Thus connecting a resistance R in series with the galvanometer coil it
becomes a voltmeter of range 0- 5 volt.

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Using the relation R= V/Ig - G, calculate the resistance R to be connected in series with the
galvanometer coil to convert it into a voltmeter of range (0 - 5) volts.

2. Connect the high resistance box in series with the galvanometer and take out plugs
equivalent to resistance R. Tighten all the remaining plugs. The Galvanometer with the
resistance R in series with it is our converted voltmeter.
3. The converted voltmeter is now to be checked for its accuracy, for this it is to be compared
with a standard voltmeter of the same range (0-3V) and follow the steps given below:
(i) Draw a circuit diagram in your notebook.

(ii) Clean the ends of connecting wires by rubbing with sandpaper and make connections shown
in the diagram. Here the rheostat and the two voltmeters are in parallel to it.

(iii) Record the least counts and zero errors of the two voltmeters and take reading of the
voltage across the potential divider.

(iv) Repeat for 4 to 5 times by changing the position of the sliding contact of rheostat and read
the corresponding values of voltages by the standard voltmeter as well as by the converted
voltmeter.

RESULT:

For the given galvanometer of resistance, G = _____Ω and figure of merit k = —-----------
A/div :
(i) Current required for full scale deflection Ig = _______ A
(ii) The value of high resistance required to convert the galvanometer into a voltmeter of range
(0 - 3 V), R = _______ Ω
(iii) On verification, the mean error = _______ %. The small value of error verifies the
conversion.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make all the connections neat, clean and tight.

2. The resistance box to be used in series should have very high resistance as compared to
resistance of galvanometer and that to be used in parallel should have low resistance.
3. Use a freshly charged battery so that its emf remains constant throughout the experiment.
4. The deflection in the galvanometer should be large and in even number of divisions.
5. The rheostat should be used as a potential divider.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.

2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct.
3. Plugs in the resistance boxes may not be tight and may have contact resistance.

DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

1. Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = _____Ω

2. Figure of merit of the given galvanometer, k = _______ A/div.
3. Total number of divisions on galvanometer scale on one side of its zero, N0 = _______
4. Current required for full scale deflection in galvanometer Ig = N0 k = _______ A
5. To calculate the value of resistance R to be connected in series with the galvanometer coil.
(i) Required range of converted voltmeter, V = 0 - ________ V
(ii) The required value of resistance R = V/Ig - G = ________ = _______Ω
6. verification
(i) Least count of the standard voltmeter = 0.1 V
zero error of the standard voltmeter = 0 V
(ii) Least count of the converted voltmeter = 1 V
zero error of the converter voltmeter = 0 V

TABLE FOR VERIFICATION OF CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

 No.of Reading of the converted Reading of Error Error %
observations galvanometer into voltmeter standard V' - V
voltmeter V
No. of Voltage (V) (V) V' - V / V
divisions V' = n x L C x 100
'n' (V)

1.

2.

3.

4.

****************

EX.NO. 4

THE FREQUENCY OF THE AC MAINS USING A SONOMETER AND AN ELECTROMAGNET

AIM:

To find the frequency of the ac mains with a sonometer and an electromagnet.

WHAT YOU REQUIRE:

A sonometer having a soft iron wire, an Electromagnet, a step down transformer, hanger with
half kg slotted weights, a physical balance,a weight box, a metre scale and a clamp stand.

FORMULA:

Frequency of ac mains using a sonometer, v = 1/4l √ T/m Hz

where l = resonance length,

T = tension in the string and
m = mass per unit length of the wire

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Check that the pulley attached to the sonometer is frictionless. Oil it if need be.
2. Place the sonometer parallel to one edge of the working table, such that the pulley remains
projected out of its perpendicular edge. See that there are no kinks in the string of the
sonometer and its one end is rigidly fixed. Pass string over the pulley such that it stretches
horizontally over the box of sonometer and attach a hanger of 1 kg weight on its free end.

3. Connect the Electromagnet to the secondary of the step down transformer and plug the
primary of the transformer in ac mains. Hold the Electromagnet in a stand and bring it close to
the sonometer wire just above the centre of its length.

4. Switch on the mains and adjust the wedges on the sonometer, starting from minimum
separation till you get maximum amplitude of oscillation of the sonometer wire. At this
resonance condition, the rider flies off. Note the length of the sonometer wire between the
wedges and also note the load suspended on the string.

5. Increase load on the hanger in steps of 1/2 kg weight and measure the resonating length in
each case. Take at least 5 observations with different loads.

6. Repeat the experiment for the same road while decreasing the loads.

7. Switch off the ac supply and take out the sonometer wire. Measure its length and also
measure its mass with the help of your sensitive balance.

RESULT:

The frequency of ac mains as determined using sonometer and electromagnet is _________

Hz.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Sona meter wire should be held horizontally between the bridges and it should be free of
kinks.
2. The magnet should always remain in the middle of the vibrating segment and its poles as
close to the wire as possible.
3. The resonance position should be ensured by noting oscillations of wire of maximum
aptitude.
4. After completion of the experiment do not forget to remove weights from the hanger.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1.The slotted weights may not have standard value marked on them.
2. Knife edges may not be sharp.
3. Pulley may not be frictionless.
4. Sonometer wire may not be of uniform cross- section.
5. The relation v = 1/2l √T/m holds for a perfectly elastic string which we may not realize in
practice.

DIAGRAM

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Length of the sonometer wire, L = _____ cm = _______ m

2. Mass of sonometer, M = _____ g = ________ kg.

3. Mass per unit length of sonometer wire, m = M/L = _______ kg/m
4. Mass of hanger, x = _______kg.

TABLE FOR RESONATING LENGTH WITH VARYING TENSION

 No.of Mass of Tention Resonating length Mean v = 1/4l √
observ hanger T = M' g length l T/m
ations and
weights (N)
(Hz)
[M'=(x+M')] (m)
(kg)

Load Load Mean

increasi decreasi l = l1 +
ng l1 ng l2 l2/2
(cm) (cm) (cm)

Mean value of the frequency of sonometer wire, v = _______ Hz.

CALCULATION:

The frequency of ac mains,

f = v/2 = _______ Hz.

***************

EX.NO. 5

TO FIND THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS BY PLOTTING GRAPHS BETWEEN U

AND V OR BETWEEN 1/U AND 1/V

AIM:

To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and
1/v.

WHAT YOU REQUIRE:

A convex lens, an optical bench with three uprights, one lens holder, two needles, a knitting
needle, a half metre scale and a spirit level.

THEORY:

The relation between object distance u, the image distance v and the focal length f of a convex
lens is given by

1/f = 1/v - 1/u

OR
f = uv / u - v

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. First of all, find the rough focal length of the convex lens by making the image of your distant
object(a tree/ a pole/ a building) on the wall of your laboratory or on a screen. The distance
between the screen and the lens will give you the rough focal length of the given convex lens.

2. Now keep the optical bench on the table and arrange the three uprights on the optical bench.
In the central upright, mount the convex lens with its holder and mount the two needles on the
other uprights one on each side of the lens. Check that the tips of the needles and the centre of
the lens should be at the same height.

3. Mark one needle as object needle and the other needle as image locating needle.

4. Place object needle (O) on the optical bench on the left side of the lens between f and 2f,
i.e., approximately 1.5 times the rough focal length of the lens. Look from the right side through
the lens. Adjust the position of the image needle till the parallax is removed tip to tip between
the image needle and image of the object needle. Note the distance 'u' between the object and
the lens and the distance 'v' between the image needle and the lens.

5. Repeat the above steps for five more sets of observations.

6. Find the index error between lens and object needle and lens and image needle.

CALCULATIONS:

To determine the focal length from the graph plot a 'u' vs v graph or 1/u vs 1/v graph choosing
same scale for x-axis as well as for y-axis in the second quadrant (according to sign
convention, sign 'u' is negative and sign for 'v' is positive).
(i) The 'u' vs 'u' graph will be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure. Draw angle bisectors
of <X'OY which meet the graph at point P. The coordinates of point P are (-2f, 2f). Draw
perpendiculars PQ and PR on OX' and OY axes which cut at Q on OX' axis and R on OY axis,
respectively.
As you know for a convex lens
'u' = - 2f
'v' = 2f and
Hence, OQ = -2f and OR = 2f
Thus, f1 = PQ/2 and f2 = PR/2
Hence, mean value of focal length of a convex lens, f = f1 + f2 /2 = ______ cm

RESULT:

From 'u' vs 'v' graph, f = _____ cm

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The uprights must be held vertical.

2. The tips of the needles and the centre of the convex lens should be at the same height.
3. Index correction for object distance from the optical centre of the lens and the image distance
from the optical centre of the lens should be properly determined and applied. 4. The lens
should not be of very large focal length.
5. Always remove the parallax using one eye only. Keep the eye at the same height as the tips
of needles and the centre of the lens.
6. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
7. To locate the position of the image, the observer must place his/her eye at a distance of about
30 cm behind the image needle.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3 Index correction may not be applied properly.
4. Personal error.

DIAGRAM:
TABLE FOR THE FOCAL LENGTH OF THE CONVEX LENS:

S.No. Position of Object Image

distance 'u' distance 'v'
(cm) (cm)

Object Lens L Image

needle O (cm) needle I
(cm) (cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

GRAPH:
******************************************

EX.NO. 6

DETERMINE THE ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION FOR A GIVEN PERSON BY PLOTTING

A GRAPH BETWEEN THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE AND ANGLE OF DEVIATION
AIM:

To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between the
angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

WHAT YOU REQUIRE:

A drawing board, a glass prism, a few pins, two sheets of white paper,
a pencil, a few drawing pins, a protractor, a half metre scale and a graph sheet.

THEORY:

The graph between angle of incidence (i) and angle of deviation(δ) is as shown in figure.

The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by

n = (sin A+δm / 2)/sin (A/2)

where A is the angle of the prism, δm is the angle of minimum deviation.

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Take a white sheet of paper and fix it on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or
cellotape.

2. Draw a line XX' at the centre of the sheet parallel to its length.

3. Place the given glass prism on the sheet of paper so that its refracting surface is vertical.
Draw the boundary of the prism and mark it ABC. Now remove the prism.

4. Draw a normal NFN1 to line AB at F, making an angle of 30° to the normal. EF will act as an
incident ray and replace the glass prism back to its original position.

5. Fix two pins Q1 and P1 on line EF about 8 cm apart from each other. Look at the images of P1
and Q1 from the other refracting face. The image would appear along P2Q2 .

6. Fix two pins Q2 P2 such that their tips would cover the images of P1 and Q1.

7. Remove the prism and join the points P2 and Q2 and reduce P2 Q2 so that it meets the side
AC at G.

8. Draw a normal N2 GN3 to AC at G and now produce EF and GH which meets at point J.
9. Repeat the experiment from steps 3 to 8 by taking different values of angle of incidence viz.,
30°, 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°, —------ and measure the corresponding angle of deviation each
time.

10. Record angle of incidence (i) and corresponding value of angle of deviation (δ) each time.
Measure the angle of prism (A) from the marked boundary of the prism.

CALCULATION:

To plot a suitable scale to plot a graph taking angle of incidence (i) on x-axis and angle of
deviation (δ) on y- axis. The shape of the graph is shown in figure.
Determinen δm from the graph and calculate n using the formula

n = (sin A+δm / 2)/sin (A/2)

RESULT:

1. As the angle of incidence is increased gradually, the angle of deviation decreases, it

becomes minimum and further increases with the increase in the angle of incidence.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Use a shark pencil to draw the boundary of the prism and rays of light.
2. Angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 60°.
3. The pins should have sharp tips and be fixed vertically.
4. Clean the surface of the glass prism.
5. Always adjust the feet and not the heads of pins to lie along the same straight line.
6. Proper arrows should be drawn to indicate the incident, the refracted and the emergency ray.
7. i - δ graph should be a smooth free hand curve drawn to ensure that the maximum number
of points lie on the curve.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The pins may not be exactly vertical.

2. Angles may not be measured properly / correctly.
3. The tips of the pins may not be on the same line.

GRAPH
 DIAGRAM

OBSERVATIONS:

1.Least count of the protractor = 0.1°

2. Angle of prism, A1 = 60°
A2 = 60°
A3 = 60°

3. Mean value of the angle of the prism, A = A1 + A2 + A3 / 3 = —-----°

TABLE FOR THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE AND ANGLE OF DEVIATION

S.No. Angle of Angle of

incidence,<i deviation,<δ

1. 30°

2. 35°
 3. 40°

4. 45°

5. 50°

6. 55°

7. 60°

EX.NO. 7

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AIR LIQUID BY USING CONVEX LENS AND PLANE MIRROR

AIM:

To find the refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and plane mirror.

WHAT YOUR REQUIRE:

A plane mirror, a convex lens, an optical needle, a clamp stand, a plumb line, a dropper and a
half metre scale.

THEORY:

The refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and a plane mirror, nwa = 2 - R/F
where,
R = focal length of the convex lens = OC
F = focal length of compound lens formed by convex lens of glass and plano-concave lens of
water = O'C

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Place the plane mirror upon the horizontal and flat base of the vertical stand. Place a convex
lens on the reflecting surface of the plane mirror.

2. Clamp on the object needle in the vertical rod of the iron stand so that its tip is vertically
above the optical centre of the convex lens (L).

3. Keeping the eye at least at the distance of distinct vision, adjust the position of the object
needle till parallax between the object needle and its inverted image is removed tip to tip. Note
the distance 'a' between the object needle and the upper surface of the convex lens and 'b', the
distance between the object needle and the upper surface of the plane mirror using a plumb line
and half metre scale.
4. Now with the help of a dropper put a few drops of experimental liquid, i.e., water on the plane
mirror under the lens. See that no air bubbles are introduced in water in this process. Again
adjust the position of the object needle by raising it in an upward direction. Hence, find the new
position of the object needle where the parallax between the object needle and its inverted
image is removed tip to tip. Measure the distance between the object needle and the surface of
the plane mirror using a plumb line and metre scale.

5. Repeat the procedure at least three more times and record the observations in the table
given below.

RESULT:

1. The refractive index of water using a convex lens and their plane mirror, nwa = —----------

2. Standard value = —----------

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Before starting the experiment, clean the convex lens and the plane mirror.
2. Clamp the object needle horizontally so that its tip touches the principal axis normally.

3. The principal axis of the convex lens should be vertical.

4. To see the image, keep your eye at the least distance of distinct vision.

5. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.

6. Take a very small quantity of experimental liquid.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The base of the plane mirror may not be horizontal.

2. The object needle may not be horizontal.
3. The liquid may be impure.
4. Carelessness of the experimenter.

DIAGRAM:
 OBSERVATIONS:

CALCULATION:

Refractive index of water,

nwa = (2 - fg/F)

nwa = (2 - OC / O'C)
 nwa = —----------

EX.NO. 8

I - V CHARACTERISTICS CURVE OF A p - n JUNCTION IN FORWARD BIAS AND

REVERSE BIAS

AIM:

To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p - n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

WHAT YOU REQUIRE:

A p-n junction diode (OA - 79 or IN 4007), a voltmeter, a milliammeter, a microammeter, a

battery of 3 V for forward bias, a dc power supply of 15 V for reverse wires, one way key, a
rheostat (0 - 30 Ω), sandpaper and connecting wires.

THEORY:

I - V characteristics of a p - n junction diode means the variation of current as a function of

applied voltage.

2. In forward biasing, the current first increases very slowly almost negligibly till the voltage
across the diode crosses the certain value called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage (~ 0.2 V for
germanium diode and ~ 0.7 V for silicon diode). Beyond this characteristic voltage, the diode
current increases significantly (exponentially) even for a small increase in the diode bias
voltage.

In reverse biasing, the current is very small, of the order of microamperes and almost
remains constant with bias. It is called reverse saturation current.

SYSTEMATIC STEPS TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT:

Forward biasing:

1. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the experimental arrangement as shown in the figure.
Ensure that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side and the negative
terminal is connected to the n-side of the p-n junction diode.

2. Determine the least count of the voltmeter and milliammeter.

3. Note down the zero error, if any, in the voltmeter and milliammeter.

4. Introduce a suitable resistance with the help of rheostat to avoid excessive current flowing
through the junction diode. Ensure that milliammeter and voltmeter indicate zero readings, if
not, slide the moving contact of the potential divider (rheostat) near the negative end of the
battery.

5. Slide the moving contact gradually towards the positive end. The forward bias increases the
forward voltage. Increase it in small steps of about 0.2 V upto about 2 V and record the
voltmeter and milliammeter readings. This completes one set.

Reverse biasing:

1. Draw a neat labelled diagram of the experimental arrangement as shown in the Fig. Ensure
that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and the negative terminal of
the battery is connected to the p-side of the p-n junction diode.

2. Determine the least count of the voltmeter and microammeter.

3. Note down zero error, if any, in the voltmeter and microammeter.

4. Starting from the zero value of reverse bias, increase the reverse voltage in small steps of 1
V and note the corresponding voltmeter and microammeter readings. The reverse current
remains zero upto certain voltage applied known as breakdown voltage.

5. Record the voltmeter and microammeter readings in tabular form.

GRAPH:

Choosing a suitable scale, plot a graph taking V on x - axis and I on y - axis. You may plot for
forward and reverse bias on the same graph sheet but you may need to take different scales for
forward bias and reverse bias because of the least difference in current.
Vf - If graph will give the forward bias characteristics whereas Vr - Ir graph gives the
reverse bias characteristic as shown in Fig.

RESULT:

1. The I - V characteristic curve (forward biasing and reverse biasing) of a p-n junction is
shown in Fig. It does not obey Ohm's law since the curve is not a straight line.
2. The graph shows that the p-n junction has directional characteristics: it conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connecting wires and terminals must be cleaned properly.
2. All connections should be tight.
3. Zero error must be noted properly, if any, and necessary zero correction should be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connections remain loose.

2. Each time the pointer of an ammeter (milli or micro) may not be on the scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.
4. Personal errors.

DIAGRAM:

TABLE FOR VARIATION OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN FORWARD BIASING AND

REVERSE BIASING

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

S.No. Observed Observed Observed Observed

Voltmeter Milliammeter Voltmeter Microammeter
Reading (V) reading (mA) Reading (V) reading (µA)

1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

GRAPH:

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