Electronics 1

 Voltage/Current
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Inductors
 Transistors
Voltage and Current

 Simple circuit – a battery pushes some

electrons around the circuit – how many per
second?
Water

 The easiest way to think of this simple circuit

is as water flowing through pipes
 Voltage is the same as the water pressure
 Current is the amount of water (electrons)
flowing through around the circuit
 Resistance is like a constriction in the flow
Ohm's Law

 There's a simple relationship:

V = IR or I = V/R or R =V /I

 Know any two you can figure out the other

Demonstration

 Go to (you will need java):

http://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-index.html

 Bookmark it!
 Click on ”ohm's law”
 You can see how for a fixed voltage the amount
of current depends on the resistance (click on a
resistor, change it)
Voltage

 Voltage is the pressure on the electrons around

a circuit – the higher the voltage the more push
they get
 High voltages (100v or more) are dangerous
and can cause death
 1000v or more can cause arcing
 Common voltages are what you have in a
battery – or 5 or 3.3v for logic families
Current

 Current is related to how many electrons are

passing a particular spot in a second
 1 amp is a high current – if you have an amp or
more somewhere in your circuit something is
getting hot
Safety

 The human body has a relatively high

resistance
”it's the volts that jolts and the mills that kills”
 Voltage wont actually kill you, but it's what will
make you feel a shock (you wont feel a DC
shock as an ongoing shock, while you cook)
 Current through the body, especially across the
heart is what will kill you – it only takes a few
milliamps
Resistors
 Limit current flow
 Are measured in ”ohms”
 Come in lots of shapes and sizes
 Colour codes tell us how big
Resistors2

 Resistors also come in power and voltage

ratings

Power P = VI = I2R = V2/R (again know any 2 ..)
if your resistor turns into a smoking piece of
carbon you probably need one with a higher
power rating
 Voltage ratings have to do with breakdown
(arcing) only an issue of you're playing with
dangerous voltages
Resistors 3

 If you connect resistors in series the resulting

resistance is the sum of the two resistor's
values
 If you connect them in parallel the resulting
value is complicated (I promised little math) but
if they are both the same the result is the same
as a resistor of half the value
 Try the ”resistors” demo
Resistors 4

 With two resistors in series the voltage in the

middle is proportional to the ratio of the two
resistors
 Click on the ”voltage divider” demo
 Right click on some resistors to muck with their
values
Polarity

 Positive charges (an absence of electrons) and

negative charges (too many electrons) kind of
work the same way
 Due to a lot of history before people worked out
how electritity we often end up thinking of
currents frowing from positive to negative (even
though the electrons really move the other way)
 It doesn't really matter
DC vs AC

 A DC voltage is a fixed voltage that doesn't

change
 An AC voltage is one that changes continually,
usually represented as a sine wave with a fixed
frequency:

 Complex waveforms are a mix of frequencies

AC vs. DC 2

 Often we see a mix of a DC voltage and an AC

voltage
 On a 'scope they look like an AC signal with an
offset from 0
Capacitors

 Block DC (infinite resistance)

 Pass AC
 'resistance' to AC inversely proportional to
value and to frequency (we say 'impedance'
rather than 'resistance' here)
 Measured in ”farads” - a farad is a lot, we
normally use nano and micro farads
 Stores energy using an internal electric field
Capacitors 2

 Come in lots of types

 Small ones (disc ceramic) are pretty rugged
 Bigger ones tend to be voltage limited
(electrolytics) and physically big
 Specialty ones for high voltages, high reliability,
larger temperature ranges, higher frequencies
Capactitors 3

 Used for three main things:

 Blocking DC voltages
 Smoothing AC from DC rails
 Frequency sensitive circuits
Capacitors 4

 An ideal capacitor will charge infinitely fast

 The real world always has resistance –
capacitors charge and discharge at a rate
proportional to the R and C in a circuit
 Click on the ”capacitor” demo
 Now look at the ”AC response” demo – see
how the current lags the voltage
Capacitors 5

 You calculate the AC impedance values of

capacitors in parallel by adding the values
together
 The rules for capacitors in series is the same as
for resistors in series
Inductors

 Store energy in a magnetic field when a current

is flowing
 Pass DC with close to 0 resistance
 Tend to block AC – resists AC current changes
 'resistance' to AC proportional to value and to
frequency (we say 'impedance' rather than
'resistance' here)
 Measured in ”henrys” - a henry is a lot, we
normally use micro and milli henrys
Inductors 2

 Come in lots of types

 Expensive, difficult to buy/use
 Physically big
 There are issues with stray magnetic fields
Inductors 3

 Used for three main things:

 Blocking AC voltages
 Smoothing AC from DC rails
 Frequency sensitive circuits
Inductors 4

 An ideal inductors has 0 resistance

 Real world always has resistance – current
changes occur at a rate proportional to the R
and L in a circuit
 Click on the ”inductor” demo
 Now look at the ”AC response” demo – see
how the voltage lags the current
Inductors 5

 You calculate the AC impedance values of

indictors in series by adding the values together
 The rules for inductors in parallel is the same
as for resistors in series
Inductors 6

 When the current through an inductor is turned

off the magnetic field collapses – it induces a
voltage that can rise to much higher than the
initial voltage – these can damage circuits
 Those sparks you see on switches when you
turn motors and other inductive loads off are
caused by this
Duality

 Capacitors and inductors seem to have similar

but opposite behavious
 AC impedance goes up with frequency in
inductors and down in capacitors
 Voltage and current phase shifts are opposite
 This is very useful
 Try the ”parallel resonance”, ”band-pass”,
”notch”, ”Twin-T” and ”crossover” demos
 Caps are usually much cheaper and easier to
use than inductors – we prefer to use them
Bipolar Transistors

 Bipolar transistors

 A small current flowing between the base (left)

and emitter (the one with the arrow) terminals
causes a much larger current to flow between
the collector and emitter
 Positive current always flows thru the arrow
Bipolar Transistors

 The ratio of base to collector current (the gain)

flowing depends on a bunch of things (no math
remember)
 In a small range of base currents the gain is
pretty much linear (without distortion)
 we often set a default DC bias on the base to
put it in the middle of this range then introduce
AC through a capacitor
Example – AC linear amplifier

 R3/R4/R2 set the base DC current

 R1/R2 is the output DC load (collector current)

 AC signals are inserted and extracted with the
caps
Example – switch mode transistor
 If we're switching DC signals we ignore any
issues around getting the transistor to act
linearly

 In this case applying a large voltage to Vin will

cause enough current to flow to turn the
transistor all the way on, it will act as if it has
close to 0 resistance
 Look at the 'switch' demo
NPN vs. PNP

 Bipolar transistors come in 2 flavours – NPN

and PNP
 All the examples we've seen so far are NPN
transistors
 PNP transistors act in a mirror way – interacting
with respect to the emitter and the +ve power
rail as NPN transistors interact with ground.
 (NPN transistors tend to be slightly cheaper
than PNP transistors)
Power amplifiers

 Sometimes we use a symetric NPN/PNP pair of

transistors
 Look at the example ”Simple Push-Pull
Follower, with Distortion”
 And then ”Improved Push-Pull Follower”
Final example

 Finally something that pulls lots of stuff together

 Look at the example ”Astable Multivibrator
(Oscillator)”
 Can you see how it works? – it uses RC
charging delays to turn on switching transistors
Field Effect Transistors

 FETs work differently from bipolar transistors –

they are controlled by a voltage between their
gate and drain terminals (rather than a current
between base and emitter)

 Applying the voltage causes the channel

between the source and drain to change size
and the amount of current flowing to change
FETs

 You use them in all the same sorts of circuits

you use bipolar transistors in
 They have linear regions for analog
 They make good switching transistors
 Gate capacitance can be an issue – even
though they are voltage driven device you may
need to inject a lot of current to get them to
switch
 Gates can be static sensitive
FETs 2

 They are the basis of most modern digital logic

because of their low power consumption and
ease of fabrication ….
 They come in N-channel and P-channel
variants – much like NPN and PNP transistors
 Try the MOSFETs 'switch' example
FETs 3

 Modern logic uses complementary FETs

 Try the ”CMOS inverter” example
 The ”CMOS Inverter (w/capacitance)” example
models real world gate capacitance
 The ”CMOS Inverter (slow transition)” shows
how we get current switching transients (the
source of much of the heat in modern digital
chips
Darlington transistors

 Darlington transistors are used when you need

high gain switching (ie driven by a really low
current)

 They are in essence two transistors tied

together
 You can make your own