International Journal of Language and Linguistics

2020; 8(5): 205-215

http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijll
doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20200805.13
ISSN: 2330-0205 (Print); ISSN: 2330-0221 (Online)

A Linguistic Stylistic Analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s

House
Tom Mboya Otieno
Department of Languages and Literature Education, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya

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To cite this article:

Tom Mboya Otieno. A Linguistic Stylistic Analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. International Journal of Language and Linguistics.
Vol. 8, No. 5, 2020, pp. 205-215. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20200805.13

Received: August 24, 2020; Accepted: September 10, 2020; Published: October 7, 2020

Abstract: Literary texts have largely been analysed from the perspective of literary criticism, literary stylistics. This paper is a
linguistic stylistic analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s play, A Doll’s House. The principal aim of the paper of the paper is to identify and
analyse linguistic features used in the play. For a systematic analysis, these linguistic features are clustered into phonological,
graphological, lexical, grammatical and semantic levels of analysis. A Doll’s House is a play that explores family relationships,
friendship and patriarchy among other thematic concerns. Helmer Torvald, one of the main characters, is the embodiment of
hegemonic masculinity in the play. The study adopted a desktop research; the researcher read the text and identified linguistic
features which he intuitively felt to be stylistically foregrounded. The results show that the author has effectively used linguistic
features to develop the themes and characters of the play. The study concludes that stylistics provides the linguistic toolkit
instrumental not only for the analysis and understanding of a given text, but also for the performance of the acted forms of art like
a play (drama). Linguistic stylistics is a tool that can be used to analyse any form of text.

Keywords: A Doll’s House, Doll, Lexical, Linguistic, Patriarchy, Stylistics

why, for the analyst, certain types of meaning are possible.

1. Introduction This postulation augments the significance of linguistics to
The principal goal of this paper is a stylistic analysis of the interpretation of literary and non-literary texts. According
Henrik Ibsen’s play, A Doll’s House. The interest of linguists to Wales [4] “the goal of most stylistic studies is to show how
and language enthusiasts is to study how language is used in a text works: but not simply to describe the formal features of
texts-spoken and written. In other words, language is at the style for their own sake, but in order to show their functional
centre of any textual analysis. The academic discipline which significance for the interpretation of the text.” In other words,
studies language linguistically is called linguistics Crystal in a stylistic analysis, it is not just the identification of
and Davy [1]. The study of linguistic features in a given text linguistic features that is of concern: we also look at the
is what, basically, is referred to as stylistics. Crystal and effectiveness of these features, how the use of such features
Davy add that stylistics, studying certain aspects of language aid in the interpretation of the text. This paper identifies
variation, is therefore essentially a part of linguistics. linguistic features in A Doll’s House [5] and shows how the
Verdonk defines stylistics as “the analysis of distinctive features aid in the understanding of the text.
expression in language and the description of its purpose and A Doll’s House is a three-act play written by Henrik Ibsen
effect [2].” Stylistics is therefore a linguistic approach that and first published in 1879. In the play, Nora, a house wife
can be used to study not only literary texts, but also non- hides her financial problems from her husband Helmer
literary texts such as legalese and journalese. Simpson argues Torvald. Helmer had fallen ill, and had to be taken to Italy so
that “stylistics is a method of textual interpretation in which as to save his life. In order to finance her husband’s going to
primacy of place is assigned to language [4].” He adds that Italy, Nora forged her father’s signature to enable her get a
whereas linguistic features do not of themselves constitute a loan of 250 pounds from Krogstad, a fellow employee at
text’s ‘meaning’, an account of linguistic features nonetheless Helmer’s office. This loan is kept as a top secret by Nora, and
serves to ground a stylistic interpretation and to help explain she works day in day out to repay the loan, albeit
206 Tom Mboya Otieno: A Linguistic Stylistic Analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House

surreptitiously. However, Krogstad, after being fired, sends a can stylistics tell us about language?”. This study answers the
letter to Helmer detailing Nora’s deceit. The secret is latter- what stylistics can tell us about language.
therefore let out. Helmer insists that Nora’s deceit has A number of studies have been carried out on A doll’s
harmed his reputation. He dismisses the fact that she House. Baseer et al [11] studied the symbolic language used
borrowed the money to save his life. This kind of reaction in A Doll’s House, from the feminist perspective. This was
from Helmer is far from what Nora had expected. She relevant to this study because symbolism is an aspect of
therefore cannot forgive Helmer for his egotistical, (linguistic) stylistics, studied under the semantic level of
unsympathetic and insensitive behaviour. She re-examines analysis. The findings aided in a deeper understanding of
her status a daughter, wife and mother, and decides to seek symbolism and its role.
freedom from being a wife and mother. She cannot forgive Hooti et al [12] studied A Doll’s House from the
the patriarchal society. She leaves Helmer and the children. perspective of postmodernism. They discussed notions such
as women’s emancipation, irony and conflict. They conclude
2. Literature Review that A Doll’s House points to the inescapable notion of self-
identification and the absolute right of each individual (single
Stylistics can basically be defined as the (linguistic) study or married) to disengage from the restricting shackles of
of style Leech and Short [6], and style is defined by modern world. But more importantly, their handling of irony,
Bussmann [7] as the characteristic use of language in a text. which is one of the objects of analysis in this paper, provided
Stylistics is a discipline that has been largely studied under invaluable insight.
literature, as a method for analysing literary texts, namely
poetry, drama and novel. According to Bradford, “Stylistics 3. Theoretical Framework
enables us to identify and name the distinguishing features of
literary texts, and to specify the generic and structural The study adopted the approach by Simpson [3] and
subdivisions of literature [8].” As such, stylistics, for a long Crystal and Davy [1]. Simpson defines stylistics as “a
time, been regarded as being related to only literary studies method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is
or literary criticism. assigned to language [3].” To do stylistics is therefore to
Widdowson [9] postulates that the value of stylistics is that explore language, and particularly the creative use of it.
stylistics can provide the means whereby a stylistician, or According to Simpson, the practice of stylistics conforms to
someone learning stylistics can relate a given piece of literary the following three basic principles, cast mnemonically as
writing with their experience of language. Although three Rs, the first one of which stipulates that stylistic
Widdowson restricts the use of stylistics to literary writing, it analysis is rigorous. By rigorous he means that a stylistic
is undeniable that at the core of his postulation is the analysis is underpinned by structured models of language and
centrality of language in literary stylistics. He relates stylistic discourse that explain how we process and understand
analysis to literary criticism by stating that the stylistic various patterns in language. The second R stipulates that a
analysis cannot replace literary criticism, but that it can stylistic analysis is retrievable, that is, a stylistic analysis is
prepare the way for literary criticism to operate more organised through explicit terms and definite criteria. The
efficaciously. Leech [10] explicitly brings out this association meanings of these terms and criteria are acceptable to other
that does exist between linguistic description and literary stylisticians. The last R stipulates that a stylistic analysis is
criticism. He views stylistics as the one which most neutrally replicable: the methods used in the stylistic analysis should
represents the bridge between linguistic and literary studies. be transparent enough to allow other stylisticians to verify
Linguistic and literary studies are like two inseparable sides them. In other words, a stylistic analysis is scientific.
of one coin. Stylistics is the point of intersection between The above principles are in consonance with Crystal and
linguistic description or language use and literary studies. Davy [1], that the work of a stylistician is three-fold: to
This paper concerns itself with linguistic description of identify the range of linguistic features which people feel to
Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. be stylistically important, and specify a precise way of
Simpson [3] observes that the preferred object of study in talking about them; to outline the system of analysing these
stylistics is literature. However, he is quick to clarify that the features, and to decide the function of the features by
traditional connection between stylistics and literature brings stratifying them into some categories. Features are pieces of
with it two caveats, the first of which is that creativity and speech or writing (a word, phrase, clause or sentence)
language as used should not be seen as a preserve of literary identifiable from the main text.
writing. The second caveat, and the more relevant to this Simpson explains that “language in its broadest
study, is that techniques of stylistic analysis “are as much conceptualisation is not a disorganised mass of sounds and
about deriving insights about linguistic structure and function symbols, but instead an intricate web of levels, layers and
as they are about understanding literary texts [3].” His links [3].” Therefore, any utterance, discourse or text (literary
argument puts linguistics, the study of language structure, at or otherwise) is organised through clearly defined levels of
the centre of a stylistic analysis. He elucidates that the analysis. Crystal and Davy identify the levels of analysis as
question “What can stylistics tell us about literature?” is phonetic/graphetic, phonological/graphological, grammatical,
always paralleled by an equally important question “What lexical and semantic. Simpson broadens the scope:
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2020; 8(5): 205-215 207

phonological/phonetics, graphology, morphology, syntax between Nora and the children. However, after Krogstad’s
(grammar), lexis analysis, semantics and pragmatics. He visit and the subsequent blackmail, Nora is not in the mood
refers to them as levels of description. In this study, the levels of talking to the children. When asked by the maid if she can
that were considered for analysis are phonological, allow the children to come in, she emphasises her refusal by
graphological, lexical and semantic levels. repeating the word “no.”
Nora: No, no, no. don’t let them come in to me! You stay
4. Methodology with them, Anne. (p 48)
In her threat to Krogstad, Nora says: “you will see, you
The study adopted a desktop research. The researcher read will see.’ (p 75). In Act 2, Krogstad asks Mrs. Linde if she
relevant texts for background information on stylistic will give up her bank job to him. She responds that that
(linguistic) analysis, literature review and theoretical would not benefit him. Krogstad seems to think through this
framework. the text, A Doll’ House with the aim of exploring response, a situation that is captured in the following
what linguistic features were used and their functions in the repetition:
contexts in which they were used. The guiding principles in Krogstad: Oh, benefit, benefit- I would have done it
the process of analysis are the principles stipulated by Crystal whether or not. (p 87)
and Davy [1] and Simpson [3]. The levels of analysis (levels In addition to creating rhythm, the following utterance by
of description) are phonological, graphological, lexical and Krogstad emphasises his commitment to withdrawing the
semantic. Each level of analysis was studied independently. letter he had written to Helmer:
Linguistic features which the researcher intuitively felt to be Krogstad: Yes, of course I will. I will wait here until
stylistically foregrounded were identified, noted down and Helmer comes; I will tell him he must give me my letter
the corresponding function described. back- (p 90). Later, when things seem to go her way, Mrs.
Linde and Krogstad are warming up to each other, she is
5. Phonological Level very excited. This exhilaration is amplified by the
following repetition:
This level of description involves the basic sound units and Mrs. Linde: (tidying up the room and laying her hat and
combination of such sound units. Wales [4] defines cloak ready) What a difference! What a difference!
phonology in relation to poetry as the conscious Someone to work for and live for- (p 91)
foregrounding through cohesive patterns of repletion of Repetition is used to bring out Nora’s desperation, to the
sound, by alliteration, assonance, rhyme etc. Otieno [13] extent that she thinks of killing herself, perhaps as the
explains that it is at this level where we examine “possible ultimate self-sacrifice. This is the point at which she is
syllable structure of a given language and the various ways in almost descending into madness.
which syllables can be combined to achieve certain effects Nora: (gropes distractedly about, seizes HELMER’S
and create aesthetic appeal.” These phonological devices domino, throws it around her, while she says in quick,
include alliteration, consonance, assonance, repetition, hoarse, spasmodic whispers) Never to see him again.
rhyme, onomatopoeia and prosodic (suprasegmental) Never! Never! (puts her shawl on her head) Never to see
features. Although these are features that are commonly used my children again either- never again. Never! Never! (p
in poetry to create musicality, they can also be used in full 102)
texts such as plays and novels. In A Doll’s House, repetition, To stress her resolve to leave Helmer, Nora says, “Yes, I
onomatopoeia, alliteration and assonance are used. know. Let me go! Let me go! (p 103).
5.1. Repetition 5.2. Alliteration

Repetition is the recurrence of a word, a phrase, a clause or Alliteration is the recurrence of the same consonant sounds
a whole sentence in a text. In addition to creating rhythm, in words that are adjacent to one another. The recurring
such recurrence is used to give prominence to a particular sound should be in the word-initial position. Norgaard et al
point the author intends to convey. To emphasise her plea for state that “alliteration has a cohesive effect, since identical
money from Helmer, Nora says repeats the word “please” sounds tend to tie words together if they occur in close
Nora: Oh, do! Dear Torvald, please, please do! (p 5) vicinity [14].” Alliteration can be used in a text not only for
When Nora lies to Helmer that she has not eaten mnemonic effects, but also as a way of foregrounding certain
macaroons, he, to show that he does not trust her, aspects of that text. The following are examples from A doll’s
superciliously responds as follows: House:
Helmer: There, there, of course I was only joking. (p 7) Helmer: Well, out with it! (p 5).
Just when Mrs. Linde is about to leave Nora’s house, the Nora: No, never. Papa died just at that time. (p 19).
voices of Nora’s children are heard on the staircase. This Rank: Silk stockings. (p 66)
elicits excitement in Nora. Nora: We will have champagne, Helen. (p 83)
Nora: There they are! There they are! (p 30) In the above utterances, the underlined consonant sounds
She runs to open the door and tells them repeatedly: come are used for mnemonic effects and to give prominence to
in! come in! This shows the closeness and love that exist certain aspects of the writer’s message.
208 Tom Mboya Otieno: A Linguistic Stylistic Analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House

5.3. Onomatopoeia creating suspense, as illustrated by the following examples:

Mrs. Linde: You don’t recognise me, I suppose.
Onomatopoeia refers to the use of words whose sounds Nora: No, I don’t know- yes, to be sure, I seem to-
imitate or echo their sense. According to leech [15], (suddenly) Yes! Christine! Is it really you? (p 9).
onomatopoeia takes the form of a resemblance between what Mrs. Linde: Nora- who was that man? (p 24).
a piece of language is like, and what it actually refers to. This Nora: Flesh coloured. Aren’t they lovely? It is so dark here
device is not extensively used in A Doll’s House. But below now, but tomorrow-. No, no, no! (p 66).
are two examples: Krogstad: Could you really do it? Tell me- do you know
Helmer:…. A song bird must have a clean beak to chirp all about my past life? (p 88)
with- no false notes! (p 44) Helmer: Two cards- of Rank’s. (p 100).
Nora: Your skylark would chirp about in every room, with In drama, just like any other everyday conversation, is
her song rising and falling- (p 57) bound to have interruptions as interlocutors take turns to
Apart from its mnemonic effect, the onomatopoeic word speak. The dash is used as a mark of such interruptions. This
“chirp” brings out the chauvinistic and condescending nature is evident in A Doll’s House.
of Helmer. Nora is not a human being but a bird, a song bird Nora: I told you about our trip to Italy. Torvald would
that would chirp around. never have recovered if he had not gone there-
5.4. Assonance Mrs. Linde: Yes, but your father gave you the necessary
funds. (p 17).
Assonance is the recurrence of a vowel sound in two more Nora: She is. But I don’t see-
words in a sentence or utterance. This repetition serves the Krogstad: I knew her too, once upon a time (p 33).
same purpose as alliteration and consonance-mnemonic Nora: No, no one; but-
effects and for highlighting certain aspects of the writer’s Mrs. Linde: And comes here every day? (p 54)
message as illustrated by the underlined vowel sounds in the Krogstad: Do you mean that you will-?
following examples from A Doll’s House: Nora: I have enough courage for it now. (p 75).
Nora: No, don’t go, no one will come in here it is sure to Dashes have also been used in the play to introduce a
be for Torvald (p 23). restatement or an explanation to an earlier stated statement.
Rank: The only one who would gladly give his life for The following data explain this phenomenon.
your sake (p 68). Nora: Speak low. Suppose Torvald were to hear! He
Nora: That he will never do! (p 75). mustn’t on any account- no one in the world must know,
Mrs. Linde: (who has read the card) I see he lives at the Christine, except you. (p 17).
corner here (p 79). Nora: What right have you to question me, Mr. Krogstad?
Nora: We will have champagne, Helen (p 83). - You, one of my husband’s subordinates! (p 33).
Mrs. Linde: Gone out of town (p 84). Nurse: What an idea! It can easily be put in order- just a
Mrs. Linde: Nils, did you really think that? (p 86). little patience. (p 49).
Helmer: But she is terribly self-willed this sweet little Nora: I have been greatly wronged, Torvald- first by papa
person. (p 92) and then by you. (p 110)
Helmer: You blind foolish woman! (p 113). Nora: Or anything else should happen to me- anything, for
instance, that might prevent my being here (p 78)
6. Graphological Level Krogstad: Yes, of course I will. I will wait here until
Helmer comes; I will tell him he must give me my letter
Simpson [3] defines graphology as the patterns of written back- that it only concerns my dismissal- that he is not to
language: the shape of the language on paper. It accounts for read it (p 90).
the written or printed structure and patterning. It therefore
encompasses features such as spelling, capitalization, 6.2. Semi-colon
hyphenation, italicization and paragraphing. In this paper, Semi-colons are used to mark pauses longer than
only a few aspects of punctuation were studied. They include those of commas. These long pauses can be dramatically
the semi-colon, the dash, and the quotation marks. used to elicit reactions from and to create suspense in
listeners during a live performance. They are also used to
6.1. Use Of Dashes
create rhythm. In order to create balance by giving equal
A Doll’s House is a dramatic text, written to be acted out position or rank, the semi-colon is used to link independent
(performed). Dashes, among other punctuation marks, would clauses in sentences.
therefore be immeasurably useful as elements of prosody. As Nora: He must, Christine. Just leave to me; I will broach
Short [16] aptly puts it, “if you pay close attention to the the subject very cleverly (p 16)
linguistic form of (parts of) dramatic texts, you can infer a Rank: I have no idea; I only heard that it was something
huge amount of information about an appropriate way to about the Bank (p 26).
perform them.” The dash therefore marks a dramatic pause. It Krogstad: Good. But below your signature there were a
used in A Doll’s House to heighten anticipation, hence few lines constituting your father a surety for money;
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2020; 8(5): 205-215 209

those lines your father should have signed (p 37-38). (calls out from his room) Is that my little lark twittering
Helmer: And you were to appear to do it of your own out there? (p 2)
accord; you were to conceal from me the fact of his having (following her) Come, come, my little skylark must not
been here; didn’t he beg that of you too? (p 43) droop her wings. (p 3)
Semi-colons have also been used in a serial list- to separate And I would not wish you to be anything but just what you
one item or a set of items from the other as demonstrated by are, my little skylark. (p 6)
the example below. Well, my skylark does that anyhow. (p 57)
Nora: Look, here is a new suit for Ivar, and a sword; and a Come, come, don’t be so wild and nervous. Be my little
horse and a trumpet for Bob; and a doll and dolly’s skylark, as you used. (p 83)
bedstead for Emmy- (p 4) (from the door way on the right) Where is my little
Semi-colons are used with conjunctive adverbs. In which skylark? (p 84)
case, the semi-colon is placed just before the adverb linking Now my little skylark is speaking reasonably. (p 95)
clauses in a sentence. (kissing her on the forehead) Goodnight, my little singing-
Helmer: No, I am not sure of that; besides, you gave me bird. (p 102)
your word- (p 7) …. Try and calm yourself, and make your mind easy
Helmer: no. but there is no need as a matter of course, he again, my frightened little singing-bird. (p 108)
will come to dinner with us. (p 7) Is it my little squirrel bustling about? (p 2)
Nora: Last winter I was lucky enough to get a lot of What is this? Is my little squirrel out of temper?
copying to do; so, I locked myself up and sat writing every …. Keep your little Christmas secrets to yourself, my
evening until quite late at night. (p 21) darling. (p 7)
6.3. Quotation Marks …. And that is as it should be, my own darling Nora. (p
61)
Quotation marks have three basic functions in writing: to You fascinating, charming little darling! (p 95)
enclose direct speech (direct quotations), to enclose unusual Yes, my own darling. (p 96)
words, and to enclose titles of short works of art such as poems …. (puts his arms round her) My darling wife, I don’t feel
and short stories. In A Doll’s House, quotation marks are used as if I could hold you tight enough. (p 101)
to enclose direct speech, utterances of some characters Both yours and the children’s, my darling Nora. (p 112)
reported verbatim. Helmer says that Krogstad always adopts a At a glance, these concrete nouns appear polite, gentle and
familiar tone with him. The utterance of Krogstad is enclosed romantic, meant to create intimacy thereby endearing Helmer
within quotation marks, thus “I say, Helmer, old fellow!” (p to Nora. They portray Nora as a beautiful, enchanting bird or
60). In performance, this direct speech will call for extra- animal, whose main role is to entertain. She can only be
linguistic features such as intonation and facial expressions to “twittering” and “bustling” (p 2). She cannot think for
bring out the disgust and contempt Helmer has for Krogstad. herself; she has no personality. It is no wonder that Nora later
On realizing that they are out of trouble; that Krogstad has sent on confesses that she has merely been performing tricks to
the bond back, Helmer tells Nora that they will forget the please Helmer. Nora has been reduced to an object of
agonies they have suffered and instead only keep saying, “It is enjoyment or entertainment. In a bid to have Krogstad back
all over! It’s all over!” (p 107). to his job at the Bank, Nora tries to please Helmer by
subserviently using the same nouns:
7. Lexical Level Nora: If your little squirrel were to ask you for something
very, very pretty-? (p 57)
This level deals with the vocabulary of a language. It Nora: Your squirrel would run would run about and do all
studies the manipulation of language at the word level. The her nice tricks if you would be nice, and do what she
main interest to a stylistician is how a writer or a speaker wants. (p 57)
ingeniously spins lexical items to crystallize his or her Nora: Your skylark would chirp about in every room, with
thoughts, to conjure emotions and to concretize events and her song rising and falling- (p 57)
characters in their speech or writing. Crystal and Davy [1] More precisely, the use of these words foregrounds the
explain that at the lexical level, information about the choice character and attitude of Helmer. He is male-chauvinistic,
of specific lexical items in a text (a choice which will of with a condescending attitude, and therefore fits well in the
course be closely related to subject matter), is given. play as an embodiment of male-chauvinism and patriarchy.
The intent of the author is to show the impact of patriarchy
7.1. Use of Nouns on individuals such as Nora. Nora is like a child, a playing
A number of nouns have been repeatedly used to develop thing, a doll. It is imperative to note that Nora also uses the
the personality and attitude of the main characters in A Doll’s word “darling” to refer to her children, almost in a similar
House, and to bring to the fore some of the underlying fashion used by Helmer to refer to Nora.
thematic concerns of the play. The first set of such nouns Helmer uses another set of nouns which have outright
used by Helmer include concrete nouns skylark, squirrel, negative denotation:
(song) bird, (singing) bird and an abstract noun darling. That is like a woman! (p 3)
210 Tom Mboya Otieno: A Linguistic Stylistic Analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House

…. The same little featherhead! (p 3) the children, which makes him maintain superiority over her.
Aha! So my obstinate little woman is obliged to get In so doing, the underlying male dominance that the author
someone to come to her rescue? (p 45) explores in the play is brought to the fore.
Nice? – because you do as your husband wishes? Well, The adjective “sweet” is also used severally in the play. In
well, you little rogue…. (p 56) the first place, it is used to describe the closeness and love
(putting his papers together) Now then, little Miss between Nora and her children:
Obstinate. (p 61) I have felt obliged to use up all he gave me for them, the
You blind foolish woman! (p 113) sweet little darlings! (p 21)
Little featherbrain-are you thinking of the next already? You are a clever boy, Ivar. Let me take her for a little
Has my little spendthrift been wasting money again? (p 2) Anne. My sweet little baby doll! (p 30)
By addressing Nora as a featherhead (featherbrain), Miss Run away in, my sweet little darlings. (p 30)
Obstinate, rogue, spendthrift and as a (little) woman, Helmer Secondly, the adjective is used more than twelve times by
elevates himself above Nora; he is “superior” and belongs to Helmer in reference to Nora, the effect of which is to create a
some form of hegemony. Nora, on the other hand, is jointly-constructed view of women in an exceedingly male-
relegated to the periphery. She, and by extension the women dominated society. In many patriarchal societies, a woman is
folk, are dishonest and have no brain. They have to depend socially created as irresistibly gorgeous, “sweet” to the eye;
on the likes of Helmer for guidance and supervision. in behaviour and in all her mannerisms. It is for this reason
that she has to be reprimanded not to even have a bite at a
7.2. Use of Adjectives macaroon; macaroons will ‘spoil’ her teeth, thereby
Adjectives are words that describe nouns, and are therefore disfiguring her appearance. Just like Nora addresses her
very important elements in sentences. We use adjectives to children as “sweet” to bring out their attractiveness, Helmer
express quality of a person or an object. In A Doll’s House, addresses Nora as “sweet” to highlight the fact that Nora is,
certain adjectives are used recurrently to accentuate attributes of or must be, sweet in appearance.
main characters, hence developing the principal issues of the And I would not wish you to be anything, but just what
text. One of the repeatedly used adjective in the play is little, you are, my sweet little skylark (p 6).
which is used more than ten times by Helmer to refer to Nora. Not a single minute, my sweet Nora. You know that was
Is that my little lark twittering out there? (p 2) our agreement (p 91)
Is it my little squirrel bustling about? (p 2) But she is terribly self-willed, this sweet little person (p 92).
Has my little spendthrift been wasting money again? (p 2) It is imperative to note that it is after the Tarantella dance
(following her) come, come, my little skylark must not that we see Helmer being sexually attracted to Nora. Helmer
droop her wings? (p 3) asks Mrs. Linde: “Just take a good look at her. I think she is
Very well. But now tell me you extravagant little person (p 4) worth looking at. Isn’t she charming, Mrs. Linde?” (p 92).
Is my little squirrel out of temper? (p 4) The net effect of this kind of description of Nora, and women
You can’t deny it, my dear little Nora. (p 6) in general, is to amplify hegemonic masculinity that the
… but just what you are my sweet little skylark (p 6) author underscores in the play.
It’s a sweet little spendthrift, but she uses up a deal of Another adjective that the author uses continually in the
money (p 6) play is dear (dearest). “Dear” is an adjective that expresses
Of course, you couldn’t, poor little girl. (p 8) affection-that one is greatly loved or liked by another person.
Well, well, you little rogue (p 56) For instance, Nora expresses her affection for her father
My little Nora, there is an important difference between when she tells Mrs. Linde: “My dear, kind father….” (p 13).
your father and me. (p 59) Similarly, Mrs. Linde and Nora use dear to express great
Now then little Miss Obstinate (p 61) likeness for each other (p 28). Helmer also uses this word
(Kissing her on the forehead) Goodnight, my little singing- severally to refer to Nora:
bird. (p 102) You can’t deny it, my dear little Nora (p 6)
My poor little Nora, I quite understand, you don’t feel as My dear Nora, I can forgive the anxiety you are in,
though you could believe that I have forgiven you although really it is an insult to me. (p 61)
everything (p 107) But, my dear Nora, you look so worn out. Have you been
Try and calm yourself, and make your mind easy again, practising too much? (p 81)
my frightened little singing-bird. (p 108) But my dearest Nora- (p 91)
The adjective, little, means small in size or amount; Why shouldn’t I look at my dearest treasure? (p 95)
miniature or diminutive, tender, delicate. When used to But my dear Nora- (p 109)
describe Nora, the implication is that Nora is so brittle and At surface level, the use of this adjective is meant to
fragile that that she needs protection. She needs protection express Helmer’s love and affection for Nora. But a broader
just as her “little” children need protection. She refers to her look at the repeated use of the word in the context of the play
children as the sweet little darlings (p 21, 42); my sweet little suggests that Nora is relegated to the periphery as Helmer is
baby doll (p 30); my nice little dolly children (p 31); my little elevated to a higher pedestal. In other words, the use of this
children (p 73). Helmer puts Nora on the same pedestal with word perpetuates hegemonic masculinity. Other adjectives
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2020; 8(5): 205-215 211

that are used to build the personality of Helmer as egocentric is basically a dialogue, spoken language meant to be
and self-righteous are miserable creature (p 103), blind, performed. It takes the form of an ordinary speech or
foolish woman (p 113), obstinate little woman (p 45), conversation. Therefore, use of contracted or speech forms
heedless child (p 117), womanly helplessness (p 107), makes a play conversational and informal, which reflects our
helpless little mortal (p 80) and thoughtless woman (p 104) everyday interaction and conversation. A contracted speech
form shortens speech by dropping one or more letters giving
7.3. Use of Pronouns it a friendly tone. In doing so, the pace of the play is
One of the most repeatedly use pronoun in the play is the increased. The following are examples of truncated speech
possessive pronoun “my”. It is used extensively by both forms used in A Doll’s House:
Helmer and Nora. Nora uses it largely in reference to her You can’t deny it, my little Nora (p 6)
children as can be seen in the following examples: There’s the bell (She tidies the room a bit) There’s
My sweet little baby doll (p 30) someone at the gate. What a nuisance! (p 8)
Run away in, my sweet little darlings (p 42) I mustn’t be selfish today (p 11)
Show it, then; think of my little children (p 73) That’s a lot, isn’t it? (p 13)
Helmer uses the word more repeatedly than Nora, and You are proud, aren’t you, of having worked so hard and
generally in reference to his wife Nora: so long for your mother? (p 16)
Is that my little lark? (p 2) Don’t laugh at me! (p 20)
Is that my little squirrel bustling about? (p 2) No, I daren’t; it’s so shocking (p 27)
Has my little spendthrift been wasting money again? (p 2) I won’t have him here (p 64)
Come, come, my little skylark must not droop her wings (p 3) I shouldn’t have thought so (p 86)
You can’t deny it, my dear little Nora (p 6) 7.5. Use of Interjections
And I would not wish you to be anything but just what you
are, my sweet little skylark (p 6) Interjections are words that express strong emotions.
Keep your little Christmas secrets to yourself, my darling They express a wide range of emotions. An interjection is
(p 7) usually followed by an exclamation mark. A play, being a
My little Nora, there is an important difference between dialogue where actors and actresses interact as they execute
your father and me (p 59) their role, is bound to have interjections because
And that is as it should be, my own darling (p 61) interjections will help intensify various emotions in the play.
Be my own little skylark, as you used (p 83) In A Doll’s House, many interjections are used to express
Where is my little skylark? (p 84) various emotions, some of which are surprise, disgust, pain,
The pronoun has been used to show possession or discovery or sudden realisation, disappointment,
ownership. Nora uses it to show her ownership of the amazement, sympathy, pleasure, grief and satisfaction.
children; the children still need her protection. They are too Examples of interjections used in A Doll’s House include
young to be given some level of independence. However, the the following:
recurrent use of this word in reference to Nora puts Nora at Nora: Oh, do! Dear Torvald; please, please do! (p 5). This
the same level as the children. Nora is possessed by Helmer expresses disappointment.
in the same fashion someone would possess property. She has Mrs. Linde: oh, I see. It was just about that time that he
to be guided, controlled and restricted like a child. For died, wasn’t it? (p 13) (surprise)
instance, she should not even have a bite at macaroons. Her Nora: My Goodness, can’t you understand that? (p 19)
opinions are not taken into consideration. Her feelings and (surprise)
desires do not matter to Helmer. Her life, actions and Rank: Ah! Some slight internal weakness? (p25) (sudden
behaviour are socially constructed by the society and discovery and realisation)
supervised by Helmer, the possessor. This equation of Nora Nora: What are they? Ah, I daresay you would like to
with an object or property defines the tenets of patriarchy. It know (p 31) (pleasure)
is for this reason that Nora, in an attempt to persuade Helmer Helmer: Aha! So my obstinate little woman is obliged to
to let Krogstad keep his job at the bank, subserviently tells get someone to come to her rescue? (p 45) (satisfaction
him: and triumph)
Your squirrel would run about and do all her tricks if you Nurse: Good heavens! – went away altogether? (p 50)
would be nice, and do what she wants (p 57) (surprise)
Your skylark would chirp about in every room, with her Nora: Oho!- you don’t mean to say you are jealous of poor
song rising and falling (p 57) Christine? (p 66) (pleasant surprise)
In other words, Nora says what Helmer would like to hear: Helmer: Well, let me look…. Aha! (p 81) (satisfaction)
that Nora is his property. Helmer: Pooh! This room is hot. (p 93) (disgust)
Nora: Alas, Torvald, you are not the man to educate me
7.4. Use of Contracted Forms into being a proper wife for you. (p 112) (pity, concern)
Contracted speech is an aspect of spoken language. A play
212 Tom Mboya Otieno: A Linguistic Stylistic Analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House

8. Semantic Level In Act 3, just before the secret about the bond is out,
Helmer tells Nora: “Do you know, Nora, I have often wished
This level deals with the meaning of words, phrases that you might be threatened by some danger, so that I might
clauses and sentences as used in given contexts. It stretches risk my life’s blood, and everything, for your sake” (p 101-
longer than the single lexical item. According to Crystal and 102). Although the reader knows that Nora is threatened by
Davy [1], semantics studies the “linguistic meaning of a text the impending disclosure of her secret, Helmer does not
over and above the meaning of the lexical items taken know this. This irony helps build suspense in the play as the
singly.” Concepts, figures of speech and semantic reader is anxious to find out how Helmer will behave when
resourcefulness are studied at this level of analysis. Specific Nora’s secret is eventually revealed.
aspects of semantic ingenuity studied here include At the beginning of Act 1, Helmer warns Nora: “No debt,
symbolism, hyperbole, irony imagery (metaphor, simile and no borrowing. There can be no freedom or beauty about a
personification) and idiom. home life that depends on borrowing and debt” (p 3). Little
8.1. Irony does Helmer know that Nora borrowed 250 pounds from
Krogstad, and therefore their home depends on borrowing
Cruse defines irony as “a species of figurative language in and debt. Nora has been repaying this loan, albeit covertly.
which the intended meaning of an expression is usually some Nora and the reader know what Helmer is ignorant of.
kind of opposite of the literal meaning [17].” In other words, When Helmer moves towards the hall door in order to see
there is blatant contradiction or discrepancy between the if some letters have come, Nora tells him: “Torvald, please
spoken and the intended meaning. There are three types of don’t. there is nothing there’ (p 81). The reader has the
irony. The first one is verbal irony, which according to Wales knowledge that Krogstad himself dropped a letter in the
[4] “is found when the words actually used appear to letter-box. Nora’s statement is just meant to delay the reading
contradict the sense actually required in the context and of the letter. As this happens, suspense and tension are
presumably intended by the speaker.” There is incongruity developed. As readers, we are just waiting for the
between what is said and what is meant. The second one is “explosion” to take place.
the irony of situation, where the discrepancy is between what
is expected or believed and what actually happens. The third 8.1.2. Situational Irony
type is dramatic irony. In dramatic irony, there is double Helmer tells Nora: “Do you know, Nora, I have often
perspective: the perspective of the reader and that of the wished that you might be threatened by some danger, so that
character. The character’s actions or words are clear to the I might risk my life’s blood, and everything, for your sake”
audience, but not to the affected character. The three types of (p 101-102). When that time comes, he does not support
irony are evidently used in A Doll’s House. Nora as he had promised. Instead he calls Nora a criminal, a
liar and a hypocrite (p 104). According to him, Nora has put
8.1.1. Dramatic Irony him through a scandalous situation- she has sullied his
There are instances of double perspective of the audience reputation. He cannot even allow her to bring up the children:
(reader) and Helmer Torvald. Helmer is portrayed as ignorant “I can’t trust them with you” (p 105). Through this irony, the
or as having inadequate knowledge of certain happenings author develops the theme of hypocrisy and family
around him, but the reader is aware of such happenings. The relationships. He is also portrayed as an egocentric, self-
first instance is when Helmer does not want to retain righteous and pretentious.
Krogstad as his employee at the bank. This is because Nora and Helmer discuss Krogstad’s forgery. Helmer tells
Krogstad is morally sick: “he forged someone’s name” (p Nora: “He forged someone’s name” (p 46). Ironically, before
46), and therefore Helmer cannot forgive him. This comment this dialogue, Krogstad approaches Nora about her own
is ironical. The reader knows that Helmer is living with a forgery of her father’s signature. There is discrepancy
similar character in his house-Nora, but Helmer does not between what is expected or believed and what actually
know this fact. Nora forged her father’s signature in order to happens. Forgery is moral sickness that Helmer cannot
get a loan of 250 pounds from Krogstad. This irony not only forgive. It is least expected that a member of his family could
develops the theme of deceit and family relationships, but it culpable for this kind of moral sickness. Situational irony is
also builds suspense. also evident in the conversation between Nora and Mrs.
Another instance of dramatic irony is when Nora denies Linde where Nora gloats after the promotion of Helmer: “He
that she has been eating macaroons. She even lies to Helmer is able to take up his work in the Bank at the new year, and
that she should not think of going against his wishes (p 7). then he will have a big salary and lots of commissions…. It
But in real sense, she has actually taken a packet of will be splendid to have heaps of money and not need to have
macaroons from her pocket and eaten some (p 2). Whereas any anxiety, won’t it?” (p 11-12). Nora envisages a happy life
Nora and the reader know the truth- that she has been eating with Helmer’s promotion. However, it is the converse that
macaroons, Helmer lacks this knowledge, hence dramatic happens. She lives a life of desperation. She eventually
irony. This irony is a hint of disobedience and rebellion. The decides to leave. The use of this irony foregrounds Nora’s
author is preparing the audience for the rebellion of Nora materialism and vanity.
later on in the play. Helmer comes in with some papers under his arm and asks
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2020; 8(5): 205-215 213

Nora: “Yes. Has someone been here?” (p 43). Nora denies Another symbol in the play is the New Year’s Day. A
that someone has been there. This response is incongruent new year is basically a signal of a new beginning, rebirth,
with what the reader, Helmer and even Nora herself know. renewal or regeneration. This new beginning can be
Krogstad has just left the house, and Helmer saw him going looked at from different facets. At the beginning of the
out of the gate. This is a lie; it is part of the theme of deceit play, Nora and Torvald are looking forward to the new
that Ibsen explores in the play. year as the beginning of a new stage in their lives; Torvald
Nora has frequently been reprimanded by Helmer for is promoted, and according to Nora; “It will be splendid to
eating macaroons. But when they are preparing for a banquet, have heaps of money and not need to have any anxiety,
Nora calls out for macaroons in the presence of Helmer (p won’t it?” (p 11-12). In other words, the new year means a
83). This a show of rebellion and desire for independence. happier phase of their lives. However, by the end of the
The author is setting the stage for the rebellion witnessed play, there is a new dramatic awakening. Nora becomes
towards the end of the play. aware of her problems, that she is merely a doll
transferred from her father’s hands to Torvald’s (p 111);
8.2. Symbolism the wonderful thing she hoped would happen did not
Symbolism refers to the use of symbols to represent ideas happen (p 116, 117), and that she was living with a
or meaning. Wales [4] defines a symbol as a sign, whether “stranger” who did not understand her (p 120). There is
visual or verbal, which stands for something else within a also a new beginning for Krogstad and Christine. The
speech community. In textual analysis, a symbol can be a “two shipwrecked people” rekindle their marriage (p 88).
character, place, object, action or event that has meaning in This renewal will increase Krogstad’s standing in the
itself, and also stands for something else more than itself. community; Nora will have someone to work and live for.
The Christmas tree is used symbolically in the play. As the The Tarantella dance is symbolic. On one hand, it
play begins, Nora tells Helen to keep it hidden from the symbolises deception and playing of tricks. It is important to
children until it is dressed up. Similarly, Nora tells Torvald that note that Nora dances Tarantella at Helmer’s bidding. After
no one can see her in her dress until the evening of the dance. the dance, Helmer remarks: “I imagine that you are my
Both the tree and Nora use attractive decorations to conceal young bride and that we have just come from the wedding,
their real selves. Therefore, the tree symbolises Nora’s position and I am bringing you for the first time into our home” (p
in the “doll’s house” as a playing thing. Just like the tree, Nora 96). He only ruminates on her being his young bride after the
is a mere flashy ornamental element in the home; pleasant to dance. It is also after the dance that we see Helmer sexually
look at and admired, but not capable of action. Given that at attracted to Nora. On the other hand, tarantella dance is an
this stage the family is preparing for Christmas celebrations, expression of Nora’s inner emotional conflicts. The dance has
the tree can also be said to be a symbol of celebrations, family some healing power; it is therapeutic. Helmer notes that Nora
happiness and unity. At the beginning of Act II, when Nora is dances as if her life depended on it (p 82). She begs him to
alone, and her mental condition has begun to deteriorate, the allow her one more hour to continue dancing (p 91). The
stage directions partly read: “The Christmas tree in the corner dance is also a signal of rebellion. She does not want to leave
by the piano, stripped of its ornaments and with burnt down the dance arena. When forced by Helmer to leave, she warns
candle-ends on its dishevelled branches” (p 49). This is after him: “you will repent not having let me stay, even if it were
Nora is blackmailed by Krogstad and the secret is revealed. As only for half an hour” (p 92). At the end of the play, she
the psychological condition of Nora deteriorates, the Christmas leaves Helmer.
tree becomes dishevelled. At the beginning both the tree and The costume Nora uses in the dance, that of Neapolitan
Nora are pretty, but towards the end, their conditions are fisher-girl, represents Nora’s unreality. Helmer dresses her
deplorable. up, in a similar fashion as Nora dresses up the Christmas tree
The macaroons that Nora has been reprimanded from which is later on dishevelled. Mrs. Linde tries to mend the
eating are symbolic. She eats some macaroons (p 2), but dress, symbolising the mending of the marriage between
when asked by Torvald, she denies that she has eaten Nora and Helmer. When Nora takes off this fancy dress (p
macaroons. Doctor Rank is utterly alarmed when Nora 108) and changes into an everyday dress (p 109), she is
offers him macaroons, which she lies were given to her by symbolically getting rid of her past life with Helmer. She
Christine (p 27). He is alarmed because he knows too well shifts from the world of unreality to a new world, a new
that macaroons are forbidden in Torvald’s house. As awakening; she becomes a new entity with a new individual
Torvald and Nora wait for the banquet, Nora calls Helen out identity free from Helmer.
to avail macaroons (p 83). Macaroons are a symbol of The title of the play, A Doll’s House, is symbolic. Dolls are
deceit, disobedience and desire for independence. Just like a objects to be played with. Nora tells Helmer that her father
child, Nora is continually rebuked for eating them. Torvald used to call her his doll child, and played with her just as she
does not want Nora to sully her attractiveness; macaroons used to play with her dolls (p 111). Similarly, she has been a
will spoil her teeth. By disobeying Torvald, Nora is doll in Helmer’s house. Her children have been her dolls (p
rebelling against hegemonic masculinity perpetrated by 112). Apart from symbolising impermanence, “a doll’s
Torvald and his ilk. She seeks freedom from being treated house” expresses hegemonic masculinity; women are like
like a child, like a doll. dolls to be played with just like one would play with a child.
214 Tom Mboya Otieno: A Linguistic Stylistic Analysis of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House

The notion of impermanence is also foregrounded when Nora simile, one object or entity is said to be like another; in a
buys dolls for her daughter; she says that the daughter will metaphor one entity is said to be another. When Mrs. Linde
soon break them (p 4). After the dance, Nora does not want asks Nora if her husband came back quite well from Italy,
Helmer to drag her back to the doll’s house; there is Nora answers: “As sound as a bell” (p 13). That is to say, her
regeneration in her. husband came back healthy.
The shutting of the door that is heard at the end of the play Nora compares the role she played when she was
symbolises the shattering of the illusion of Helmer and responsible for the sustenance of the family during their one-
Nora’s marriage. There is nothing to mend now. year stay in Italy to the role men usually play. She tells Mrs.
Linde that “it was like being a man” (p 21). That role made
8.3. Metaphor her feel like a man supporting the family during that period.
Wales notes that in metaphor, one field of domain of In addition, men are portrayed as superior to women; the
reference is carried over or mapped onto another on the responsibility of supporting and sustaining the family rests on
basis of some perceived similarity between the two domains the shoulders of a man.
[4].” Metaphor is a trope that is used to make sense of After learning about the impending death of Doctor Rank,
abstract or unfamiliar experiences in terms of simpler and Helmer scornfully remarks: “He, with his suffering and his
more familiar experiences. The basic principle here is loneliness, was like a cloudy background to our sunlit
comparison (of the unfamiliar and familiar experiences). happiness” (p 101). This simile expresses Helmer’s lack of
The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing sadness for Doctor Rank’s death, begging the question, “were
one kind of thing in terms of another, Lakoff and Johnson they really good friends?” Additionally, Helmer’s egocentric
[18]. nature is brought to the fore.
The first comparison can be drawn between Nora and the After the Tarantella dance, Helmer believes that their
pet names that are used by Helmer to refer to her. He calls relationship will emerge even stronger. He therefore assures
her a song-bird, skylark and squirrel. These words reflect the Nora of his absolute protection using the simile: “I will
innocent, polite or gentle nature of Nora. She is just as gentle protect you like a hunted dove that I have saved from a
or innocent as the bird or the squirrel. At a different level, the hawk’s claws” (p 108). He is committed to ensuring that
use these metaphorical nouns elucidates the egocentric nature Nora is safe.
of Helmer as well as the patriarchal nature of this society. 8.5. Hyperbole
Nora is being regarded as a child, whose desires and opinions
are of no value. Helmer does not think of her as an adult Cruse defines hyperbole as “a figure of speech involving
because she is a woman. deliberate exaggeration for rhetorical effect, to increase
Doctor Rank says that in the next fancy-dress ball he will impact or attract attention [17].” The exaggeration is
be invisible; that there is a big black hat that when put on, incredible; it is an overstatement. In drama, hyperbole is
makes one invisible (p 99). The big black hat that Doctor often used for emphasis as a sign of emotion or passion,
Rank hints at wearing in the next fancy dress-ball is death; Wales [4].
that he will be dead by that time. The title, A Doll’ House, is Mrs. Linde calls Nora a child (p 16). This is an
an extended metaphor. An extended metaphor is one that is exaggerated description because Nora is not a child.
developed in great detail- it runs throughout the entire play. However, according to Mrs. Linde, Nora knows very little
Nora was a doll in her father’s house; she is now a doll in her about the burdens and troubles of life. The efficacy of this
husband’s house, and she has dolls (her children) in the same exaggeration is to foreground Nora’s innocence and naivety
house). Nora is treated like a playing thing and a helpless as far as burdens and troubles of life are concerned.
child who needs protection from Helmer and his ilk. Helmer Similarly, when Nora tells Nurse the she (Nora) would like to
tells Nora: “Try and calm yourself, and make your mind easy tear the fancy dress into a hundred thousand pieces (p 49), we
again, my little frightened singing bird…. I have broad wings know that is an incredible exaggeration. It is herculean task
to shelter you under” (p 108). to tear the dress into a hundred thousand pieces. It is Nora’s
Krogstad tells Mrs. Linde that he is a shipwrecked man distressed and desperate state that are being emphasised by
clinging to a bit of wreckage (p 87). Being shipwrecked this hyperbole.
describes the extent of (emotional) damage Krogstad suffered Mrs. Linde tells Krogstad: “But now I am quite alone in
when Mrs. Linde left him to marry her late husband. the world- my life is so dreadfully empty and I feel so
Krogstad is also described as morally diseased. This is forsaken” (p 88). That Mrs. Linde is lonely and lacks a
because he forged documents, which utterly sullied his companion is highlighted. She is a “shipwrecked woman” (p
reputation. 87), who is longing for someone to work and live for and a
home to bring comfort into (p 91). It is for these reasons that
8.4. Similes she says that she is alone, and that her life is dreadfully
Similes are the converse of metaphors in terms of empty. This is hyperbolic because she for sure is not the only
comparison. Whereas metaphor is a direct comparison of two human being in the whole world, and her life is not empty in
entities, simile is an indirect comparison. In other words, in a the literal sense.
After the secret is revealed through Krogstad’s letter,
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2020; 8(5): 205-215 215

Helmer has the following to tell Nora: “Now you have

destroyed all my happiness…. And I must sink to such
miserable depths because of a thoughtless woman” (p 104).
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[11] Baseer et al. (2013). The Use of Symbolic Language in
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