Q1) what is deadlock? what are its necessary conditions? how do you remove these conditions?

explain briefly?

A) Deadlock is a situation in a concurrent system where two or more processes are unable to
proceed because each process is waiting for the other to release a resource, resulting in a deadlock.
This can cause the system to become unresponsive and ultimately fail.

The necessary conditions for a deadlock to occur are:

Mutual exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-shareable mode. This means that only
one process can use the resource at any given time.

Hold and wait: A process must be holding at least one resource and waiting to acquire additional
resources that are currently being held by other processes.

No pre-emption: Resources cannot be pre-empted or taken away from a process until it voluntarily
releases them.

Circular wait: A set of processes is waiting for each other in a circular chain. For example, Process A is
waiting for a resource held by Process B, and Process B is waiting for a resource held by Process C,
and so on, until Process n is waiting for a resource held by Process A.

To remove the conditions that lead to a deadlock, we can apply the following methods:

Avoidance: By preventing any one of the necessary conditions from occurring, we can avoid
deadlocks altogether. For example, we can use a resource allocation algorithm that prevents circular
wait, or we can use a protocol that ensures that resources are never held indefinitely.

Prevention: This involves identifying and eliminating one or more of the necessary conditions for
deadlock to occur. For example, we can use a protocol that allows pre-emption, or we can ensure
that all processes request all required resources at the start of their execution.

Detection and recovery: This I nvolves detecting when a deadlock has occurred and then taking steps
to recover from it. One way to detect a deadlock is by using an algorithm that examines the state of
the system and identifies whether a deadlock exists. Once a deadlock has been detected, recovery
can be achieved by either aborting one or more processes or by releasing one or more resources.

Overall, the prevention and avoidance of deadlocks are generally preferred over detection and
recovery as these methods are less disruptive to the system and prevent the deadlock from occurring
in the first place.

Q2) explain Banker’s algorithm for deadlock avoidance

A) The Banker's algorithm is a deadlock avoidance algorithm used in operating systems to manage
resources allocation and prevent deadlocks. It is designed to ensure that a safe state is maintained by
checking if a request for resources from a process could lead to a deadlock.

The algorithm uses the following data structures:

A) Available: a vector of length n that specifies the number of available resources of each type.
 B) Allocation: an n x m matrix where each element (i,j) represents the number of resources of
type j allocated to process i.
C) Maximum: an n x m matrix where each element (i,j) represents the maximum number of
resources of type j that process i may need.
D) Need: an n x m matrix where each element (i,j) represents the remaining resources of type j
that process i may need to complete its task.

The Banker's algorithm works by simulating resource allocation and checking for safety before
granting a request. A process can request resources by specifying the number of resources of each
type it needs. The request is granted if it does not lead to an unsafe state.

The algorithm follows these steps to determine if a request can be granted:

1. When a process requests a set of resources, the system checks if the request can be satisfied.
If the resources are not available, the process must wait until they become available.
2. The system checks if granting the request would result in a safe state. To do this, it
temporarily allocates the requested resources to the process and checks if the resulting state
is safe. If it is safe, the request is granted, and the process continues to run. If it is not safe,
the requested resources are not allocated, and the process must wait.
3. When a process releases resources, the resources are returned to the system, and the
allocation and need matrices are updated.

The Banker's algorithm ensures that resources are allocated safely, preventing deadlocks by checking
for a safe state before granting a request. If a request cannot be granted without violating safety, it is
denied, and the process must wait. This ensures that the system remains in a safe state, preventing
deadlocks from occurring.

Q3) what is a process and how it is stored in a memory? what are various process state? explain
Process Control Block in detail?

A) In operating systems, a process is a program in execution. A process includes the current values of
the CPU registers, the program counter, and other information necessary for the operating system to
manage the execution of the program.

A process is stored in memory in a data structure called the Process Control Block (PCB). The PCB
contains information about the process, such as its state, the program counter, the CPU registers, the
memory management information, and the I/O status. The PCB is used by the operating system to
manage and control the execution of the process.

There are various process states in an operating system, including:

1. New: The process is being created.

2. Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor.
3. Running: The process is being executed by a processor.
4. Blocked: The process is unable to execute due to waiting for an external event, such as I/O.
5. Terminated: The process has completed its execution.

The Process Control Block (PCB) is a data structure used by the operating system to manage and
control the execution of processes. The PCB contains information about the process, including:

 Process ID (PID): A unique identifier assigned to the process by the operating system.
  State: The current state of the process, such as new, ready, running, blocked, or terminated.
 Program counter: The address of the next instruction to be executed.
 CPU registers: The values of the CPU registers at the time of context switching.
 Memory management information: Information about the process's memory allocation, such
as the base and limit registers.
 I/O status: The status of any I/O operations that the process is waiting for.
 Priority: The priority level assigned to the process by the operating system.

The PCB is created when a process is created, and it is updated as the process executes. The
operating system uses the PCB to manage the process's execution, including scheduling the process,
allocating resources, and saving and restoring the process's state during context switching.

In summary, a process is a program in execution, and it is stored in memory in a data structure called
the Process Control Block (PCB). The PCB contains information about the process, including its state,
program counter, CPU registers, memory management information, and I/O status. The PCB is used
by the operating system to manage and control the execution of the process.

Q4) describe the differences among short term, mid-term and long-term scheduling?

A) Short term, mid-term, and long-term scheduling are different types of process scheduling in an
operating system. These scheduling algorithms determine how processes are allocated CPU time and
other system resources.

I. Short-term scheduling: Also known as CPU scheduling, it determines which process to run
next among the processes that are ready to execute. It is responsible for deciding which
process should be allocated CPU time in the immediate future, typically in the range of
milliseconds. The objective of short-term scheduling is to minimize the average response
time, turnaround time, and waiting time for processes.
II. Mid-term scheduling: Also known as swapping, it is a technique used in memory
management to improve the performance of the system. It is responsible for moving
processes from main memory to secondary memory (disk) and vice versa. It is used when
there is not enough physical memory to hold all active processes. The objective of mid-term
scheduling is to manage the degree of multiprogramming, i.e., the number of processes in
main memory at any given time.
III. Long-term scheduling: Also known as job scheduling, it determines which processes should
be admitted into the system and allocated resources. It is responsible for selecting which
processes should be brought into the system from the pool of available processes, based on
the available system resources and the priority of the process. The objective of long-term
scheduling is to maximize system throughput, i.e., the number of processes completed per
unit time.

Q5) In which ways is the modular kernel is similar to layered approach? in what ways modular kernel
differs from layered approach?

A) The similarities between modular kernel and layered approach are as follows:

I. Both approaches allow for a more modular and flexible architecture by dividing the
operating system into smaller components.
II. Both approaches provide a clear separation of concerns, making it easier to maintain and
modify individual components without affecting the rest of the system.
 III. Both approaches allow for better scalability by allowing new components to be added or
removed without disrupting the existing system.

However, there are some differences between the modular kernel and the layered approach:

I. In a layered approach, each layer provides services to the layer above it, while in a modular
kernel, modules can interact directly with each other without the need for a strict hierarchy
of layers.
II. A modular kernel allows for more fine-grained control over which components are loaded
and executed at runtime, while a layered approach typically involves a fixed set of layers that
are loaded and executed in a predetermined order.
III. A modular kernel may have fewer layers than a layered approach, as some functions that
would be implemented in a separate layer in a layered approach can be combined into a
single module in a modular kernel.

Q6) explain the concept of demand paging and page fault?

A) Demand paging is a memory management technique used by operating systems to optimize the
use of physical memory. In demand paging, the entire program is not loaded into memory at once.
Instead, only those parts of the program that are currently being used, or are likely to be used in the
near future, are loaded into memory. This is done on-demand, as and when required, to conserve
memory and reduce the time required to load programs.

When a program attempts to access a page of memory that is not currently in physical memory, a
page fault occurs. A page fault is an exception that is raised by the operating system when a program
attempts to access a page of memory that is not currently in physical memory.

When a page fault occurs, the operating system responds by bringing the required page from disk
into physical memory. The page replacement algorithm determines which page to remove from
memory to make room for the new page. Once the required page is loaded into memory, the
program can resume its execution.

Demand paging allows for more efficient use of physical memory by only loading pages into memory
when they are required. This reduces the time required to load programs and also allows for larger
programs to be run on systems with limited physical memory. However, it also introduces the
possibility of page faults, which can cause a performance penalty if not handled efficiently.

To summarize, demand paging is a memory management technique that allows the operating system
to load pages into memory on demand, as and when required, to optimize the use of physical
memory. Page faults occur when a program attempts to access a page of memory that is not
currently in physical memory, and the operating system responds by bringing the required page into
memory.

Q7) WRITE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT INTERPROCESS COMMUNICATION?

A) Inter-process communication (IPC) refers to the mechanisms and techniques used by operating
systems to enable communication between different processes running on the same system. There
are two main types of IPC: direct and indirect.

Direct IPC:
Direct IPC involves a direct communication between two processes. In this type of IPC, the sender
process communicates directly with the receiver process using a shared memory region or a message
passing mechanism. The sender process can send messages or data to the receiver process, and the
receiver process can respond to the sender by sending messages or data back. Direct IPC is a fast and
efficient method of IPC since it avoids the overhead of involving the operating system in the
communication process.

Indirect IPC:

Indirect IPC involves communication between two processes through a third-party mechanism such
as a file or a message queue. In this type of IPC, the sender process writes data to a file or a message
queue that is monitored by the operating system. The receiver process then reads the data from the
file or message queue. Indirect IPC is a more flexible method of IPC since it allows multiple processes
to communicate through a centralized mechanism. However, it can also be slower than direct IPC
since it involves more overhead and requires the operating system to manage the communication.

Q8) WHAT IS SWAPPING? JUSTIFY THE NEED OF SWAPPING?

A) Swapping is a technique used by operating systems to move pages of memory between physical
memory and secondary storage (such as a hard disk) in order to optimize the use of physical
memory. When a process is executing, it is loaded into physical memory (RAM) and is given a certain
amount of memory space to work with. As the process continues to run, it may need to allocate
more memory than the space allotted to it in physical memory. In this case, the operating system will
use swapping to move some of the pages of memory that the process is not currently using out of
physical memory and onto secondary storage.

The need for swapping arises due to the limited amount of physical memory available on most
computer systems. If a process requires more memory than is available in physical memory, it will
start to run slowly and may even crash. Swapping allows the operating system to allocate memory to
processes in a more efficient manner by moving pages of memory that are not currently in use out of
physical memory and onto secondary storage. This frees up space in physical memory for the process
to use, thereby reducing the likelihood of slow performance or crashes due to insufficient memory.

Q9) WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NAMED AND UNAMED PIPES? WRITE SYNTAX FOR BOTH.

A) Named pipes and unnamed pipes are two types of interprocess communication (IPC) mechanisms
used in Unix and Unix-like operating systems.

Named pipes:

A named pipe is a type of file that allows communication between two or more processes. It is also
called a FIFO (first-in, first-out) pipe because data is read from the pipe in the same order that it was
written to the pipe. A named pipe has a name in the file system, and processes can access the named
pipe by opening it like any other file. Named pipes can be used to facilitate communication between
processes running on the same system or on different systems connected by a network.

Syntax for creating a named pipe: mkfifo <pipe_name>

Syntax for opening a named pipe: int fd = open(<pipe_name>, <open_mode>);

Unnamed pipes:

An unnamed pipe is a type of IPC mechanism that allows communication between two or more
related processes. It does not have a name in the file system, and can only be used for
communication between processes that have a common ancestor (e.g., a parent process and its child
processes). Unnamed pipes are created using the pipe() system call, and the two ends of the pipe
(i.e., the read end and the write end) can be accessed using file descriptors.

Syntax for creating an unnamed pipe: int pipefd[2]; pipe(pipefd);

Syntax for opening an unnamed pipe: read(pipefd[0], <buffer>, <count>); write(pipefd[1], <buffer>,
<count>)

Q10) WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS METHODS AVAILABLE FOR IPC? DISCUSS IN BRIEF

A) Inter-process communication (IPC) is the mechanism by which processes running on a computer

system can exchange information and coordinate their activities. There are several methods available
for IPC, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Here are the most common methods:

I. Pipes: Pipes are a type of IPC mechanism that allows communication between related
processes. There are two types of pipes: named pipes and unnamed pipes. Named pipes
have a name in the file system, and can be used to facilitate communication between
processes running on different systems. Unnamed pipes do not have a name in the file
system, and can only be used for communication between processes that have a common
ancestor.
II. Message Queues: Message queues are a type of IPC mechanism that allows processes to
exchange messages with each other. Messages are stored in a queue and can be read by
other processes in a predefined order. Message queues can be used for inter-process
communication between processes running on the same system or on different systems
connected by a network.
III. Shared Memory: Shared memory is a type of IPC mechanism that allows processes to access
a common area of memory. This allows processes to exchange information and coordinate
their activities more efficiently than with other IPC mechanisms. Shared memory can be used
for inter-process communication between processes running on the same system.
IV. Semaphores: Semaphores are a type of synchronization mechanism that can be used in
conjunction with other IPC mechanisms. Semaphores are used to control access to shared
resources, and can prevent two processes from accessing a shared resource at the same
time.
V. Sockets: Sockets are a type of IPC mechanism that allows processes to communicate with
each other over a network. Sockets are commonly used in client-server applications, where
one process acts as a server and other processes act as clients.
Q11) CONSIDER A LOGIC ADDRESS SPACE OF 8 PAGES 1024 ADDRESSABLE WORDS EACH MAPPED
ONTO A PHYSICAL MEMORY OF 32 FRAMES. HOW MANY BITS ARE THERE IN LOGICAL ADDRESS?
HOW MANY BITS ARE THERE IN PHYSICAL ADDRESS.

A) Given:

Logical address space = 8 pages

Each page has 1024 addressable words

Physical memory = 32 frames

To determine the number of bits required for the logical address, we need to calculate the total
number of addressable words in the logical address space:

Total number of addressable words = number of pages * number of words per page

= 8 * 1024

= 8192

Since each addressable word requires one byte (assuming byte-addressable memory), the logical
address space requires 13 bits to address all of the 8192 words.

To determine the number of bits required for the physical address, we need to calculate the total
number of addressable words in physical memory:

Total number of addressable words = number of frames * number of words per frame

= 32 * 1024

= 32768

Since each addressable word requires one byte, the physical memory requires 15 bits to address all
of the 32768 words.

Therefore, the logical address requires 13 bits, while the physical address requires 15 bits.

Q12) Suppose that a disk drive has 5000 cylinders number 0 to 4999. The drive is currently serving a
request at the cylinder 2150 and the previous request was at the cylinder 1805 the queue of pending
request is in FIFO order is:

2069, 1212, 2296, 2800, 544, 1618, 356, 1523, 4965, 3681

Starting from the current head position, what is the total distance (in cylinders) that the

disk arm moves to satisfy all the pending request for each of the following disk scheduling algorithms

i) SSTF

ii)SCAN
A)

i) SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First) Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

Starting at cylinder 2150, we can find the closest cylinder to the current position and move the disk
head there first. From there, we repeat the process of finding the closest cylinder until all pending
requests have been serviced.

2069 is 81 cylinders away from 2150

2296 is 146 cylinders away from 2150

2800 is 650 cylinders away from 2150

3681 is 531 cylinders away from 2800

4965 is 1165 cylinders away from 3681

544 is 1606 cylinders away from 544

1618 is 432 cylinders away from 1618

356 is 1292 cylinders away from 356

1523 is 373 cylinders away from 1523

1212 is 938 cylinders away from 1212

Using the SSTF algorithm, the total distance that the disk arm moves to satisfy all pending requests
is:

81 + 146 + 650 + 531 + 1165 + 1606 + 432 + 1292 + 373 + 938 = 6604 cylinders

ii) SCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

In the SCAN algorithm, the disk head moves in one direction (either towards the highest cylinder or
towards the lowest cylinder) until it reaches the end, and then reverses direction. Starting at cylinder
2150, we first move the head towards the highest cylinder until the highest request has been
serviced. Then, we reverse direction and move the head towards the lowest cylinder, servicing
requests along the way.

The highest cylinder in the queue is 4965.

The lowest cylinder in the queue is 356.

Starting from 2150, we can service requests in the following order:

2296, 2800, 3681, 4965, 356, 356, 544, 1212, 1523, 1618, 2069

Using the SCAN algorithm, the total distance that the disk arm moves to satisfy all pending requests
is:

(4965 - 2150) + (4965 - 2069) + (2800 - 2069) + (3681 - 2800) + (3681 - 356) + (544 - 356) + (1212 -
544) + (1523 - 1212) + (1618 - 1523) + (2069 - 1618) = 18140 cylinders.
Q13) List five services provided by an operating system. Explain how each provides convenience to
the users. Explain also in which cases it would be impossible for user level programs to provide these
services

A)

I. Process management: An operating system provides the facility to create, execute, and
terminate processes. It also provides a mechanism for interprocess communication and
synchronization. This service provides convenience to users as they can execute multiple
programs simultaneously without interference. User level programs cannot provide this
service as they do not have access to low-level hardware resources and kernel-level
operations.
II. Memory management: An operating system allocates and deallocates memory space to
programs as per their requirement. It also manages virtual memory and paging operations.
This service provides convenience to users as they don't have to worry about managing
memory resources. User level programs cannot provide this service as they do not have the
ability to access physical memory or manage page tables.
III. File management: An operating system provides file management services to users. It
includes creating, deleting, modifying, and organizing files and directories. This service
provides convenience to users as they can easily store and access their files. User level
programs cannot provide this service as they do not have direct access to storage devices.
IV. Device management: An operating system manages input and output devices such as
printers, scanners, and keyboards. It provides device drivers that enable user programs to
access these devices. This service provides convenience to users as they can use multiple
devices simultaneously. User level programs cannot provide this service as they do not have
direct access to the low-level hardware resources required to control these devices.
V. Security: An operating system provides security services such as authentication,
authorization, and access control. It ensures that only authorized users can access the system
resources. This service provides convenience to users as they can protect their sensitive data.
User level programs cannot provide this service as they do not have the ability to control the
access to system resources and perform low-level security operations.

Q14) What are difference between user level thread and kernel level threads? Under what
circumstances is one type better than the other?

A) User-level threads (ULTs) and kernel-level threads (KLTs) are two types of threads used in
multithreading programming. Here are the differences between the two:

1. Management: ULTs are managed by the application program and run in user mode, while
KLTs are managed by the operating system kernel and run in kernel mode.

2. Overhead: ULTs have less overhead as they are managed by the application program,
while KLTs have more overhead as they are managed by the kernel.
 3. Concurrency: ULTs are not suitable for heavy I/O or other system-level operations as they
can block other ULTs within the same process. On the other hand, KLTs can run
concurrently, even if one thread is blocked, allowing other threads to continue executing.

4. Scheduling: ULTs rely on the application program to schedule them, while KLTs are
scheduled by the kernel, which can take into account the priorities and system load.

5. Portability: ULTs are more portable as they are not dependent on the underlying
operating system, while KLTs are dependent on the kernel implementation.

ULTs are better suited for applications with fine-grained synchronization and where multiple threads
are used for computation rather than I/O operations. ULTs can also be used in applications where the
number of threads is limited and the system load is low. KLTs are better suited for applications that
involve heavy I/O and system-level operations. They are also better for applications that require high
performance and need to utilize multiple processors.

In general, the choice between ULTs and KLTs depends on the specific needs of the application. If the
application requires fine-grained control over threads and low overhead, ULTs may be more suitable.
If the application requires concurrency, high I/O, and system-level operations, KLTs may be a better
option.

Q15) Explain the differences between multilevel queue and multilevel feedback queue scheduling.

A) Multilevel Queue (MLQ) and Multilevel Feedback Queue (MLFQ) are two types of scheduling
algorithms used in Operating Systems. Here are the differences between the two:

Multilevel Queue (MLQ)

In the Multilevel Queue scheduling algorithm, the processes are divided into separate queues based
on their characteristics. Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm and priority level. The
processes are assigned to a specific queue based on their CPU requirements, process type, or other
criteria.

Multilevel Feedback Queue (MLFQ)

In the Multilevel Feedback Queue scheduling algorithm, the processes are assigned to multiple
queues based on their priority level and CPU burst time. The processes are initially assigned to a
high-priority queue, and if they use up their entire CPU time slice, they are demoted to a lower-
priority queue.
Q16) Explain with example how the behavior variate when the time quantum for round robin
scheduling is large or small

A) In round robin scheduling, each process is given a fixed time quantum to execute before it is
preempted and the next process is scheduled. The behavior of the system can vary depending on the
size of the time quantum.

If the time quantum is large, then each process is allowed to execute for a longer period before being
preempted. This can lead to longer response times for interactive processes, as they may have to
wait longer before receiving a CPU allocation. On the other hand, longer time quantum may reduce
the overhead of context switching, as there are fewer context switches required to execute a given
number of processes.

For example, suppose we have a set of processes P1, P2, P3, and P4, with CPU burst times of 10, 20,
5, and 15 units respectively. If the time quantum is set to 50 units, then each process will have
sufficient time to complete its CPU burst before being preempted. This can lead to longer response
times for interactive processes such as P3, as they have to wait for longer periods before being
scheduled.

On the other hand, if the time quantum is small, then each process is allowed to execute for a
shorter period before being preempted. This can lead to shorter response times for interactive
processes, as they may be scheduled more frequently. However, smaller time quantum increases the
overhead of context switching as there are more frequent context switches required to execute a
given number of processes.

For example, if the time quantum is set to 5 units, then each process will be scheduled for a short
period before being preempted. This can lead to shorter response times for interactive processes
such as P3, as they are scheduled more frequently. However, the overhead of context switching may
be high, as the operating system has to perform more frequent context switches to execute all the
processes.

Q17) explain the following desk scheduling algorithms with the help of examples (i) FCFS (II) SCAN
(III) SSTF (IV) LOOK (V) C-LOOK (VI) C-SCAN

A)FCFS (First-Come-First-Serve) Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

This is the simplest disk scheduling algorithm, where the requests are processed in the order in
which they arrive in the queue. The requests are executed in a first-come-first-served basis. This
algorithm is non-preemptive, meaning that once a request is being processed, it cannot be
interrupted.

Example:

Consider a disk with 200 cylinders numbered from 0 to 199. Assume that the disk arm is currently
positioned at cylinder 50 and there are three requests in the queue at cylinders 98, 183, and 37. The
order in which the requests will be executed will be: 98, 183, and 37.

SCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

SCAN (Elevator) algorithm works like an elevator, servicing requests in the order that they are
received, but servicing requests in only one direction until it reaches the last cylinder, at which point
it reverses direction and starts servicing requests in the opposite direction.

Example:

Consider a disk with 200 cylinders numbered from 0 to 199. Assume that the disk arm is currently
positioned at cylinder 50 and there are five requests in the queue at cylinders 98, 183, 37, 122, and
14. The order in which the requests will be executed will be: 37, 14, 98, 122, and 183.

SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First) Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

This algorithm chooses the request with the shortest seek time from the current position of the disk
arm to the cylinder that is being requested. In other words, it minimizes the total seek time.

Example:

Consider a disk with 200 cylinders numbered from 0 to 199. Assume that the disk arm is currently
positioned at cylinder 50 and there are five requests in the queue at cylinders 98, 183, 37, 122, and
14. The order in which the requests will be executed will be: 37, 14, 98, 122, and 183.

LOOK Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

This algorithm is similar to SCAN, but instead of going all the way to the end of the disk and reversing
direction, it stops at the last request in each direction and changes direction immediately. This results
in less seek time and faster response than SCAN.

Example:

Consider a disk with 200 cylinders numbered from 0 to 199. Assume that the disk arm is currently
positioned at cylinder 50 and there are five requests in the queue at cylinders 98, 183, 37, 122, and
14. The order in which the requests will be executed will be: 37, 14, 98, 122, and 183.

C-LOOK (Circular LOOK) Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

This algorithm is similar to LOOK, but instead of going all the way to the end of the disk and reversing
direction, it returns to the start of the disk and services requests in the same direction. This can
result in faster response times than LOOK if there are many requests at the beginning or end of the
disk.

Example:

Consider a disk with 200 cylinders numbered from 0 to 199. Assume that the disk arm is currently
positioned at cylinder 50 and there are five requests in the queue at cylinders 98, 183, 37, 122, and
14. The order in which the requests will be executed will be: 37, 14, 98, 122, and 183.

C-SCAN (Circular SCAN) Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

This algorithm is similar to SCAN, but instead of going all the way to the end of the disk and reversing
direction,
Q20) WHAT IS VIRTUAL MEMORY? HOW DOES DEMAND PAGING SUPPORTS VIRTUAL MEMORY?
EXPLAIN IN DETAIL?

A) Virtual memory is a memory management technique that allows a computer to use more memory
than it physically has available by temporarily transferring pages of data from random access
memory (RAM) to disk storage. The concept of virtual memory is based on the principle of memory
virtualization, which separates logical memory as seen by a process from physical memory.

Demand paging is a technique used to implement virtual memory, which allows a computer to
transfer only the necessary pages of an application from disk storage to physical memory as they are
needed. This helps to conserve physical memory and reduce the amount of time required to load an
application into memory.

When an application is executed, the operating system initially loads only a small portion of it into
physical memory, leaving the rest on the disk. As the program runs, it may require additional pages of
memory that are not currently in physical memory. When this happens, the operating system uses
demand paging to bring the required pages from disk storage into physical memory.

Q21) HOW SEGMENTATION SUPPORTS USER VIEW OF THE MEMORY

A) Segmentation is a memory management technique that supports the user's view of memory. In
segmentation, memory is divided into segments that represent logical units such as code, data, and
stack. Each segment is identified by a name and a length. The user's view of memory is mapped onto
the physical memory using segment tables. These tables keep track of the base address and length of
each segment.

Segmentation allows the user to deal with logical units of memory rather than physical addresses,
which makes it easier to write and manage programs. For example, a program can access a segment
of memory using its name rather than its physical address. Additionally, segmentation allows for
dynamic allocation of memory, where the size of a segment can change at runtime.

Overall, segmentation provides a way to organize memory that better reflects the way users think
about their programs, making programming easier and more intuitive.

Q22) DESCRIBE THE ACTIONS TAKEN BY KERNEL TO CONTEXT SWITCH BETWEEN PROCESSES

A) Context switching is the process of switching between different processes or threads in a

multitasking operating system. It allows multiple processes or threads to share a single CPU core, and
gives the appearance of each process or thread running concurrently.

The kernel is responsible for managing the context switching process. When a context switch occurs,
the kernel saves the current state of the process that is currently running, including the values of all
CPU registers and other important data structures. It then restores the state of the next process that
is scheduled to run.

The following is a high-level overview of the actions taken by the kernel during a context switch:

1. The kernel determines which process or thread should run next based on its scheduling
algorithm.
 2. The kernel saves the current state of the process that is currently running, including the
values of all CPU registers and other important data structures, into the process control block
(PCB) of that process.
3. The kernel loads the state of the next process that is scheduled to run from its PCB into the
CPU registers and other relevant data structures.
4. The kernel updates its internal data structures to reflect the new state of the system,
including updating the process queue and other scheduling-related data structures.
5. The kernel transfers control of the CPU to the newly loaded process, which begins executing
instructions from where it left off when it was last switched out.

Q23) WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY WAIT-FOR-GRAPH? EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLE

A) Wait-for-graph is a concept in operating system theory that is used to describe the relationship
between processes that depend on one another for resources. In a wait-for-graph, each node
represents a process, and each directed edge represents a dependency between processes. A wait-
for-graph is used by the operating system to detect and resolve deadlocks, which occur when two or
more processes are waiting for each other to release a resource.

For example, consider a system with three processes: Process A, Process B, and Process C. Process A
requires a resource that is currently held by Process B, and Process B requires a resource that is
currently held by Process C. Process C, in turn, requires a resource that is currently held by Process A.
This creates a circular dependency between the three processes.

Q24) WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY OS? EXPLAIN THE STRUCTURE OF VARIOUS OS?

A) OS stands for Operating System. An operating system is a software system that manages computer
hardware, software resources, and provides services to application programs. It acts as an
intermediary between the computer hardware and application software, providing an interface
between them.

The structure of an operating system can be divided into four main components:

1. Kernel: The kernel is the core component of the operating system that manages the system's
resources and provides basic services to application programs. It provides an interface for
applications to interact with the hardware and manages memory, CPU scheduling, device
drivers, and file systems.
2. Device drivers: Device drivers are software modules that interface with hardware devices,
allowing the operating system to communicate with them. They provide a uniform interface
for applications to access hardware resources, such as printers, keyboards, and network
cards.
3. System libraries: System libraries are collections of pre-written code that provide commonly
used functions to applications. They provide a standard set of functions that can be used by
applications, such as graphical user interface (GUI) functions and file input/output (I/O)
functions.
4. Applications: Applications are software programs that run on top of the operating system.
They rely on the services provided by the operating system, such as memory management
and I/O, to run on the computer.
Q25) What are system calls? Describe the various types of system calls.

A) System calls are programming interfaces provided by the operating system to enable user-level
processes to interact with the kernel and access system resources. They allow user-level processes to
request services from the operating system, such as input/output (I/O) operations, process
management, memory management, and file system operations.

There are several types of system calls:

1. Process Control System Calls: These system calls are used for managing processes, such as
creating new processes, terminating processes, waiting for process completion, and
obtaining process information. Examples of process control system calls include fork(), exec(),
wait(), and exit().
2. File Management System Calls: These system calls are used for managing files and
directories, such as opening and closing files, reading and writing files, and creating and
deleting files. Examples of file management system calls include open(), read(), write(),
close(), and unlink().
3. Device Management System Calls: These system calls are used for managing hardware
devices, such as printers, disks, and network interfaces. Examples of device management
system calls include ioctl(), read(), and write().
4. Information Maintenance System Calls: These system calls are used for maintaining system
information, such as obtaining system configuration information, setting system parameters,
and obtaining system statistics. Examples of information maintenance system calls include
gethostname(), getuid(), and time().
5. Communication System Calls: These system calls are used for inter-process communication,
such as sending and receiving messages between processes and creating and managing
communication channels. Examples of communication system calls include pipe(), socket(),
and bind().
6. Memory Management System Calls: These system calls are used for managing memory
resources, such as allocating and deallocating memory and managing memory protection.
Examples of memory management system calls include malloc(), free(), and mmap().

Q26) What are the different types of scheduling algorithms used in CPU scheduling? How are they
different from each other?

A) There are several types of CPU scheduling algorithms that operating systems can use to manage
the allocation of the CPU to processes. Some of the most commonly used algorithms are:

First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling:

This is the simplest scheduling algorithm, where processes are executed in the order they arrive in
the ready queue. It is non-preemptive, meaning once a process is assigned the CPU, it runs to
completion. The disadvantage of this algorithm is that it may lead to a long waiting time for short
processes if a long process arrives first.

Shortest Job First (SJF) Scheduling:

This algorithm schedules processes based on the length of their CPU burst time. It can be either
preemptive or non-preemptive. Non-preemptive SJF gives the shortest job priority and executes it
first, while preemptive SJF executes the shortest job first and preempts if a shorter job arrives.
Priority Scheduling:

This algorithm assigns priority to each process based on some criteria such as time limits,
importance, etc. It can be either preemptive or non-preemptive. Non-preemptive priority scheduling
executes a process with the highest priority until completion, while preemptive priority scheduling
may interrupt a lower priority process and allocate the CPU to a higher priority process.

Round Robin (RR) Scheduling:

This algorithm is designed for time-sharing systems. It allocates a fixed time slice to each process in a
cyclic order, and processes are executed in a time-sharing manner. It is a preemptive algorithm that
provides a balance between fairness and responsiveness, but its disadvantage is that it may waste
time switching between processes.

Multilevel Queue Scheduling:

This algorithm assigns processes to multiple queues based on their characteristics such as priority,
process type, or other criteria. Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithm, and processes
move between queues based on predefined criteria. It allows for a fine-grained control over different
processes, but it is complex to implement.

Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:

This algorithm is an extension of the multilevel queue scheduling algorithm, where processes can
move between different queues based on their execution history. It allows processes to move to a
lower-priority queue if they have used a significant amount of CPU time, or to a higher-priority queue
if they have been waiting for a long time. It provides a good balance between responsiveness and
fairness.

Q27) What is the critical section problem? AND EXPLAIN DINNER PHILOSHPERS PROBLEM, READER
WRITER PROBLEM, producer-consumer problem.

A) The critical section problem is a fundamental synchronization problem in computer science. It

arises when multiple concurrent processes or threads try to access a shared resource or section of
code that can cause inconsistency or unexpected behavior if accessed simultaneously.

The critical section problem can be solved using synchronization techniques such as locks,
semaphores, and monitors. These mechanisms ensure that only one process can access the critical
section at any given time, thereby preventing race conditions, deadlocks, and other synchronization
issues.

Here are some examples of classical synchronization problems that use critical section mechanisms:

Dining Philosophers Problem:

This problem is a classic example of deadlock, where a group of philosophers sit around a table with
a bowl of rice in front of them and chopsticks between each pair of adjacent philosophers. The
problem is to design a protocol for the philosophers to pick up and put down their chopsticks in a
way that avoids deadlock. The critical section in this problem is when a philosopher picks up both
chopsticks.
Reader-Writer Problem:

This problem involves multiple readers and writers that access a shared data structure, such as a file
or database. The problem is to ensure that readers and writers can access the shared resource
concurrently without causing race conditions or inconsistencies. The critical section in this problem is
the write operation, which requires exclusive access to the resource.

Producer-Consumer Problem:

This problem involves multiple producers and consumers that access a shared buffer or queue.
Producers generate data and add it to the buffer, while consumers retrieve data from the buffer and
consume it. The problem is to ensure that producers and consumers can access the buffer without
causing race conditions, deadlocks, or buffer overflow. The critical section in this problem is when a
producer adds data to the buffer or a consumer retrieves data from the buffer.

Q28) What is a page fault interrupt? How is it handled in a paging system?

A) A page fault interrupt is a type of interrupt that occurs when the operating system attempts to
access a page that is not currently present in physical memory. This can happen when a process
attempts to access a page that has been swapped out to disk or when a process attempts to access a
page that has not yet been loaded into memory.

When a page fault occurs, the operating system must handle the interrupt and bring the missing
page into physical memory before the process can continue executing. The handling of a page fault
interrupt in a paging system typically involves the following steps:

The operating system first checks to see if the missing page is present in the system's page table. If
the missing page is present in the page table, the operating system updates the page table to
indicate that the page is now present in physical memory.

If the missing page is not present in the page table, the operating system generates a page fault
exception and suspends the process that attempted to access the missing page.

The operating system then looks up the missing page on disk and loads it into a free frame in physical
memory. The operating system updates the page table to indicate that the missing page is now
present in physical memory. The suspended process is then resumed and allowed to access the
previously missing page.

Q29) What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous IPC?

A) In computer science, IPC (inter-process communication) is a mechanism that allows processes to

communicate with each other and synchronize their actions. IPC can be classified into two
categories: synchronous and asynchronous.

Synchronous IPC involves the sender and receiver processes coordinating their actions to ensure that
data is transferred correctly. In synchronous IPC, the sender sends a message and waits for a
response from the receiver before proceeding with its own processing. The receiver receives the
message, processes it, and sends a response back to the sender. The sender waits for the response
before continuing with its own processing. Synchronous IPC is useful in scenarios where the sender
requires an immediate response from the receiver before proceeding with its own processing.
Asynchronous IPC, on the other hand, involves the sender sending a message and continuing with its
own processing without waiting for a response from the receiver. The receiver receives the message
and processes it independently of the sender. The receiver may send a response back to the sender
at a later time, but the sender does not wait for it. Asynchronous IPC is useful in scenarios where the
sender does not require an immediate response from the receiver and can continue with its own
processing without waiting.

Q30) What are threads? How do they differ from processes? Explain the concept of multi-threading.

A) In computing, a thread is a lightweight process that can run concurrently with other threads
within a single process. A process is a separate program that runs in its own memory space and can
contain one or more threads.

Threads differ from processes in several ways. First, threads share the same memory space and
resources as the process they belong to, while processes have their own memory space and
resources. This means that communication between threads is faster and more efficient than
communication between processes. Second, threads are cheaper to create and destroy than
processes, and switching between threads is faster than switching between processes. Third, threads
can be used to take advantage of multi-core processors by allowing different threads to run on
different cores simultaneously.

Multithreading is the ability of a program to create and manage multiple threads concurrently within
a single process. Multithreading can provide several benefits, including improved performance,
increased responsiveness, and better resource utilization. Multithreading can be implemented using
either user-level threads or kernel-level threads.

In user-level threading, the operating system is not aware of the existence of threads and the threads
are managed entirely by the application. User-level threads are faster to create and destroy than
kernel-level threads, but they cannot take advantage of multi-core processors and are limited in their
ability to perform certain operations.

In kernel-level threading, the operating system is aware of the existence of threads and the threads
are managed by the kernel. Kernel-level threads are slower to create and destroy than user-level
threads, but they can take advantage of multi-core processors and can perform more operations
than user-level threads.

Q31) What are page replacement algorithms? Explain the differences between FIFO, LRU, and
Optimal page replacement algorithms.

A) Page replacement algorithms are used by the operating system to decide which pages to remove
from physical memory when the memory becomes full and new pages need to be brought in. These
algorithms determine which page is to be replaced based on various factors such as the frequency of
use, time since the page was last accessed, and other factors.

The most common page replacement algorithms are FIFO, LRU, and Optimal.
First-In, First-Out (FIFO)

In the FIFO algorithm, the operating system removes the oldest page from memory first. The pages
are stored in a queue, and the page at the front of the queue is the first page to be removed when
memory is full. This algorithm is simple to implement but may result in poor performance when
older pages are still in use.

Least Recently Used (LRU)

The LRU algorithm keeps track of the most recently used pages and removes the least recently used
page from memory first. This algorithm is based on the assumption that pages that have not been
accessed recently are less likely to be accessed in the near future. The LRU algorithm is more
effective than the FIFO algorithm in reducing the number of page faults, but it requires additional
overhead to maintain the list of recently used pages.

Optimal Page Replacement

The Optimal algorithm replaces the page that will not be used for the longest period in the future.
This algorithm requires perfect knowledge of future memory references, which is impossible to
obtain in practice. The optimal algorithm is used as a benchmark to compare the performance of
other algorithms, but it is not practical to implement in most real-world scenarios.