Geochemistry and Mineralogy

of Solid Mine Waste: Essential

Knowledge for Predicting
Environmental Impact Weathered Pb–Zn
tailings from the
Calumet Island mine,
Québec
Heather E. Jamieson*

1811-5209/11/0007-0381$2.50    DOI: 10.2113/gselements.7.6.381

L
arge volumes of waste rock and mine tailings are stored at mine sites. geochemically equivalent to the
Predicting the environmental impact of these wastes requires an under- rock mined. Exposure of these
wastes to the atmosphere, the
standing of mineral–water interaction and the characterization of the hydrosphere and the action of
solid materials at the microscopic scale. The tendency of mine wastes to mic roorga nisms generates
produce acid or neutral drainage containing potentially toxic metals gener- drainage that may be acid and rich
in dissolved metals and sulfate. As
ally reflects the ratio of primary sulfide to carbonate minerals and the trace explained by Nordstrom (2011 this
element concentrations inherited from the ore deposit, as well as any ore issue), the chemistry of the
processing that may have created new compounds. Whether potentially toxic drainage is mainly the result of the
oxidation of iron sulfide minerals,
elements are released to surface water, groundwater, or bodily fluids (in the such as pyrite and pyrrhotite. This
case of ingestion or inhalation) depends on the host mineral and the possi- reaction generates acidity and
bility of sequestration by secondary minerals. sulfate and releases elements such
as Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb from sulfide
Keywords : mine tailings, secondary minerals, synchrotron microanalysis, minerals that are soluble in low-pH
acid–base accounting, bioaccessibility water. If sufficiently high amounts
of carbonate minerals are present,
INTRODUCTION the drainage may be neutralized, but some potentially toxic
Senior executives of mining companies have been heard elements, such as arsenic and selenium, may still be present
to say that their business is as much concerned with in relatively high concentration in these higher-pH waters.
moving and managing solid waste as it is with producing
The first important attribute inherited from the deposit
metals. The sheer volume of tailings and waste rock
that governs the chemical reactivity of mine wastes from
produced is astounding: on a per capita basis, North
metal mines is the balance between reactive, acid-gener-
Americans produce more than 10 times as much solid mine
ating sulfide minerals (notably pyrite and pyrrhotite) and
waste as household garbage. Despite opportunities to
acid-neutralizing minerals (primarily calcite and other
recycle and reuse this material (Lottermoser 2011 this
carbonate minerals such as dolomite). This balance is
issue), most of it is simply stored. Aside from the physical
evaluated using acid–base accounting methods (Jambor
issues associated with enormous piles of waste rock and
2003; Price 2009). These static tests have two parts: (1)
voluminous tailings in impoundments or filling lakes and
determination of the acid-producing potential (AP) based
streams, the chemical reactivity of some mine wastes,
on sulfide content (assumed to be pyrite), and (2) evalua-
specifically the release of potentially toxic and bioavailable
tion of the neutralization potential (NP) by titrating the
elements to natural waters and, if ingested, bodily fluids,
sample with acid, usually sulfuric. Those materials with
causes the greatest environmental damage. It is the
NP/AP < 1 are considered potentially acid-generating. In
geochemical and mineralogical character of solid mine
modern mining, hundreds of samples are tested, and the
waste that determines the nature of hazardous drainage
results are used to assess the risk that acid mine drainage
and harmful dust, the amount of contamination and, ulti-
might be produced from the wastes. Kinetic tests provide
mately, the risk to human and ecosystem health.
additional information on the rate of acid generation and
This article will show how the prediction of the risk associ- neutralizing processes; using “humidity cells”, crushed rock
ated with mine wastes, particularly whether they will is exposed to alternating dry and humid air over periods
produce acid, sulfate- and metal-rich drainage or, alterna- of weeks or months and then rinsed, and the drainage
tively, pH-neutral or even alkaline drainage with potentially produced is analyzed for pH, sulfate, and other solutes.
toxic elements, is rooted in their geochemical and mineral-
The second important attribute of mine wastes inherited
ogical composition. Examples of exciting new microana-
from the deposit is the trace element association, particu-
lytical techniques will illustrate how detailed mineralogical
larly the potentially toxic elements that are hosted in ore
analysis can provide key insights into the transformation
minerals or accompanying sulfides. The potential for the
of mine wastes through weathering and the implication of
leaching of such elements is evaluated using various types
these reactions for environmental damage.
of leaching experiments, including simple field tests—
where samples are mixed with water and shaken for several
GEOCHEMISTRY OF MINE WASTE minutes and the solution is then decanted and analyzed
Since more than 90% of the material handled during most —and multiyear field bin or column studies designed to
metal mining is discarded, mine wastes are, essentially, simulate mine wastes exposed to weathering conditions
(Price 2009).
* Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering
Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
E-mail: [email protected]

E lements , V ol . 7, pp. 381–386 381 D ecember 2011

Both attributes can be predicted, to some degree, by the logical factors, such as high-flow conditions. During floods,
type of ore deposit mined or prospected. For example, mechanical erosion introduces larger particles in suspen-
volcanogenic massive sulfide base-metal deposits are likely sion, and these have lower surface area and less adsorbed
to produce acid mine drainage since the ratio of neutral- As than the smaller particles that dominate the sediment
izing carbonates to reactive sulfide minerals is low, and the load during low-flow conditions.
potentially toxic elements that could be released include
Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd. On the other hand, orogenic gold Types of Minerals in Mine Wastes
deposits are less likely to produce acid mine drainage since Minerals and other solid compounds in the mine wastes
they have lower concentrations of sulfide minerals and discussed in this article fall into four groups: (1) primary
often contain carbonate minerals (Seal and Hammarstrom sulfide minerals, (2) primary non-sulfide minerals, (3)
2003). However, wastes from orogenic gold deposits may compounds produced by ore processing, and (4) secondary
liberate As from arsenopyrite during weathering, and this minerals formed by weathering. Tables 1 and 2 show exam-
metalloid can be mobile at neutral pH. ples of the first and last groups; Alpers et al. (1994) and
Lottermoser (2010) have compiled more comprehensive lists.
MINERALOGY OF MINE WASTE
Primary Sulfide Minerals
The most serious environmental problems associated with
The sulfide minerals comprising or accompanying ore
solid mine wastes are their tendency to chemically react
affect the degree and rate of sulfide oxidation and the
with air and water to produce contaminated water
nature of the potentially toxic elements released. As an
(Nordstrom 2011) or to be ingested or inhaled by humans
example, Figure 2a depicts the primary ore assemblage at
and react with bodily fluids (Plumlee and Morman 2011
the Geco Cu–Zn deposit in northwestern Ontario, Canada,
this issue). Airborne dust may also transport metal to soils
and Figure 2b shows tailings from the same deposit that
and surface water. The fundamental processes that control
have been exposed to the atmosphere for three years.
whether potentially toxic elements are released or seques-
Pyrrhotite, a rapidly oxidizing sulfide (Jambor and Blowes
tered involve mineral–water interaction. Therefore, to under-
stand the chemical reactions involved, it is important to
characterize, in detail, the reactive minerals present in Table 1 Selected primary sulfide minerals found
fresh and weathered mine wastes. For example, during in mine wastes
production at the Giant mine in the Canadian Northwest Mineral Formula
Territories from 1949 to 1999, ore was roasted to release
Pyrite FeS2
gold, transforming arsenopyrite into Fe oxides (maghemite
and hematite) (Fig. 1). Since the most potentially toxic Marcasite FeS2
elements, As and Sb, are now hosted in oxide rather than Pyrrhotite Fe (1-x) S
sulfide phases in the tailings, optimal remediation of this Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
site in the future needs to ensure that these materials are
Bornite Cu5FeS 4
not placed in an oxygen-deficient, reducing environment
where they may destabilize and undergo reductive dissolu- Sphalerite (Zn,Fe)S
tion, possibly releasing As and Sb to solution (Fawcett and Pentlandite (Fe,Ni) 9S 8
Jamieson 2011). This knowledge will help to improve both Enargite Cu3AsS 4
risk assessment and remediation design. In another study,
Galena PbS
Grosbois et al. (2011) used a combination of mineralogical
techniques to identify the As-hosting minerals in suspended Molybdenite MoS2
particulate matter collected from streams draining a former Tetrahedrite–Tennantite (Cu,Fe)12 Sb 4S13 – (Cu,Fe)12As4S13
gold-mining district in France. They show how the trans- Cinnabar HgS
port of arsenic depends on whether aggregates of clay
Cobaltite CoAsS
minerals or Fe and Mn oxyhydroxide particles are the
important carriers, and this, in turn, depends on hydro- Stibnite Sb2 S3
Realgar AsS
Orpiment As2 S3

Table 2 Selected secondary minerals found

in mine wastes
Mineral Formula
Iron oxyhydroxides
Goethite α-FeO(OH)
Lepidocrocite γ-FeO(OH)
Ferrihydrite Fe(OH) 3
Aluminum oxyhydroxides
Gibbsite Al(OH) 3
Böhmite AlO(OH)
Sulfate minerals
Gypsum CaSO4 ∙ 2H 2O
Jarosite group minerals (K,Na,H3O)Fe3 (SO4) 2 (OH) 6
Figure 1 Reflected-light photomicrograph of calcine residue
(roasted-sulfide concentrate) from the Giant mine, Schwertmannite Fe16O16 (SO4) 2 ∙ nH 2O
Yellowknife, Canada. Grey grains exhibiting spongy and concentric Melanterite FeSO4 ∙7H 2O
textures are As-bearing roaster Fe oxides. They are mostly
maghemite (Mgh), with some hematite (Hem) exhibiting red Copiapite FeIIFe4III (SO4) 6 (OH) 2 ∙ 20H 2O
internal reflections. Bright grains are relict sulfides, including
yellowish white pyrite (Py) and brownish white pyrrhotite (Po). Epsomite MgSO4 ∙7H 2O
From Walker et al. (2005), reprinted with permission from the
Anglesite PbSO4
M ineralogical A ssociation of C anada

E lements 382 D ecember 2011

 acid-generating potential of the wastes (Fig. 1). Another
A
interesting example is described by Jambor et al. (2009),
who discovered cyanide-bearing compounds formed in
gold-mine tailings mixed with organic-rich lake sediments;
these compounds included Fe III4 [Fe II (CN) 6 ] 3, commonly
known as Prussian Blue. These authigenic cyanide precipi-
tates contained significant amounts of Ni, Cu, and Zn.

Secondary Minerals
Secondary minerals formed from the weathering of primary
sulfide minerals comprise a large group of mine waste
minerals. Selected examples of oxyhydroxides and sulfates
are given in Table 2, but secondary carbonates, sulfides,
silicates and oxides may also precipitate (Alpers et al. 1994;
Lottermoser 2010). Many of these minerals are fine grained
B and have a high capacity for adsorption of potentially toxic
metals. These precipitates can therefore limit the aqueous
concentration of such elements, although not necessarily
to concentrations that are low enough to meet water-
quality guidelines. Identification of these secondary
minerals provides information on the aqueous conditions
under which they form (pH, redox, metal and sulfate
concentrations). For example, under acid conditions galena
may oxidize to anglesite (PbSO4), whereas in a pH-neutral
environment the secondary mineral will be cerussite
(PbCO3). Spectacular examples of secondary minerals are
the Fe sulfate precipitates that occur underground at the
Richmond mine at Iron Mountain in northern California
(Nordstrom et al. 2000; Nordstrom 2011) and downstream
from the Rio Tinto mine workings in Spain (Hudson-
Edwards et al. 1999, 2011 this issue). In many other cases,
Figure 2 Reflected-light photomicrographs of (A) unaltered
Cu–Zn ore from the Geco mine, Ontario, and secondary minerals occur as weathering rims on primary
(B) tailings from Geco exposed to the atmosphere for 3 years. minerals (Fig. 2 b ) or as poorly crystalline crusts and
Pyrrhotite has partially oxidized, while pyrite remains unreacted. cements. Even when present in minor amounts, these
Py = pyrite, Po = pyrrhotite, Sph = sphalerite, Cp = chalcopyrite. secondary minerals are very important in mineral–water
Source : Jamieson et al. (1995)
interaction, and characterizing them requires a combina-
tion of careful and novel analytical techniques.
1998), exhibits textural evidence of dissolution and a reac-
tion rim of Fe oxyhydroxide and sulfate. The adjacent pyrite Methods of Mineral Characterization
grain has less-evident oxidation, suggesting a slower rate Identification of the minerals associated with mine wastes
of reaction. The element of most concern in drainage from is key to understanding mineral–water reactions. Particle
the Geco deposit is Zn released from sphalerite, which also size, porosity, surface area, degree of crystallinity, and trace
appears to dissolve readily in tailings (Jamieson et al. 1995). element concentration are also important since these char-
acteristics may control the long-term stability of the
Primary Non-Sulfide Minerals minerals and their role in releasing potentially toxic
Carbonate minerals in ore deposits or their host rocks have elements to water and organisms. Selected examples of the
an important role in neutralizing acid drainage. In mine- techniques used to characterize mine waste minerals are
tailings impoundments, it has been observed that calcite given in Table 3. If significant quantities of a monominer-
is the most soluble carbonate and dissolves rapidly. alic sample can be collected, as in the case of the Richmond
Dolomite and ankerite dissolve more slowly (Jambor and mine Fe sulfate minerals, then “bulk” techniques, including
Blowes 1998) but can still provide neutralizing capacity. X-ray diffraction (XRD) or the partial or complete dissolu-
However, if Fe and Mn carbonate minerals dissolve under tion of the mineral samples followed by chemical analysis
oxidizing conditions, Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ can hydrolyze and of the resulting solution, can be used (e.g. Peterson 2003).
produce acid. More often, however, samples are mixtures. Conventional
techniques, particularly petrography (reflected and trans-
Silicate minerals may dissolve slowly in mine drainage and
mitted light), electron microprobe analysis, and scanning
are not usually effective in controlling pH (Jambor et al.
electron microscope imaging and analysis, can be very
2002). In some cases, however, soluble silicates may signifi-
helpful in identifying minerals and characterizing textures
cantly influence the composition of drainage. At the Ekati
(Jambor and Blowes 1998; Hudson-Edwards et al. 1999).
diamond mine, Northwest Territories, Canada, crushing
Figure 3 shows how element mapping and electron imaging
and washing of kimberlite during the diamond-removal
using an electron microprobe can characterize a primary
process produces alkaline, high-Mg discharge water due to
sulfide grain rimmed by a secondary mineral. Researchers
the rapid dissolution of serpentine and olivine (Rollo and
have recognized that many mineral–water interactions
Jamieson 2006). This also involves the trapping of atmo-
occur in microenvironments (Fig. 4) and require nanoscale
spheric CO2 and production of secondary carbonates, a
characterization (Hochella et al. 2005; Petrunic et al.
process that can balance the greenhouse gas emissions of
2009).
mining operations (Wilson et al. 2009; Lottermoser 2011).
The availability of powerful X-ray beams generated at
Compounds Produced by Ore Processing synchrotron facilities has produced a new family of tech-
On-site processing (such as ore roasting, heap leaching and niques that are very useful for characterizing mine waste
pressure oxidation) may produce new solid compounds minerals. Synchrotron-based X-ray absorption spectros-
that are part of mine wastes. In some cases, this involves copy (XAS) can be used to identify the minerals hosting
converting sulfide minerals to oxides, thus reducing the potentially toxic elements such as Pb (Cotter-Howells et

E lements 383 D ecember 2011

 Table 3 Selected analytical techniques applied to mine waste mineralogy

Application to mine waste Example studies cited

Analytical technique
mineralogy in this article
Imaging, element mapping and Hudson-Edwards et al. (1999);
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
qualitative spot chemical analysis Walker et al. (2005)
Element mapping, quantitative spot Walker et al. (2009); Corriveau et al.
Electron microprobe analysis (EMPA)
chemical analysis (2011)
Transmission electron microscopy High-resolution imaging; may include
(TEM), scanning transmission electron chemical information and Petrunic et al. (2009)
microscopy (STEM) electron diffraction
Mineral identification based on crystal
X-ray diffraction (XRD), including structure; Rietveld analysis provides
Wilson et al. (2009)
Rietveld analysis relative amounts of crystalline phases
in mixtures
Micro-X-ray diffraction using Grain-scale mineral identification based
conventional or synchrotron sources on crystal structure; application to Walker et al. (2009); DeSisto et al. (2011)
(micro-XRD) poorly crystalline materials
Synchrotron-based X-ray absorption Mineral characterization based on
Foster et al. (1998)
spectroscopy (XAS) oxidation state and short-range structure
Synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence Element mapping and semi-quantitative
Hayes et al. (2009); Walker et al. (2009)
(micro-XRF) spot analysis

al. 1994) and As (Foster et al. 1998; Hudson-Edwards et al. mineral crystals formed by high-temperature geological
2005). These techniques are called X-ray absorption near processes since the large individual crystals are unlikely to
edge spectroscopy (XANES) or extended X-ray absorption diffract using the microfocused monochromatic X-ray
fine structure (EXAFS), depending on which part of the beam. Thus the method eliminates patterns from quartz,
absorption spectrum is used. If a microfocused synchrotron feldspar, and other abundant minerals that tend to domi-
beam is used, near-simultaneous analysis using micro-XAS, nant mine waste, enhancing the ability to discern metal-
micro-XRF (which uses the X-ray fluorescence signal to bearing minerals of interest.
provide information on elemental composition) and micro-
Rarely is one method adequate to thoroughly characterize
XRD (X-ray diffraction) can be accomplished (Walker et
the minerals in mine waste, especially as multiple hosts
al. 2005, 2009). Figure 5 shows an example of synchrotron-
are to be expected, and most researchers use a combination
based micro-XRD, which is similar to conventional XRD
of techniques to characterize mine waste minerals and
in that the unknown pattern can be compared with thou-
coexisting water (e.g. Hudson-Edwards et al. 2005; Fawcett
sands of reference mineral patterns; however, micro-XRD
and Jamieson 2011). Identification of contaminant-hosting
has the special advantage that a microfocused synchrotron
grains is not possible with conventional tools. This last
beam can collect information from individual grains or
point is an important consideration for risk assessors in
alteration rims of minerals that are present in low abun-
situations where the potential hazard associated with mine
dance and would not be apparent in a bulk XRD pattern.
waste depends on the mineral host, as explained in the
Moreover, the powerful synchrotron beam tends to produce
following example.
diffraction from microcrystalline and nearly amorphous
materials, typical of secondary minerals in mine wastes.
In fact, micro-XRD tends not to work well for coarser
GEOCHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL
CONTROLS ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL
AND HEALTH IMPACT OF MINE WASTE:
AN EXAMPLE
Abandoned gold-mine tailings from several sites in Nova
Scotia, Canada, contain high concentrations of As, a result
of mining and processing arsenopyrite-rich ore from 1860
to 1945. Many of these tailings are now located close to
residential areas, and they are publicly accessible and used

A B

Figure 3 Element maps for S, Ca, As, Si, and Fe and a backscat- (A) TEM image of sphalerite with a bright Cu-rich
tered-electron image of a grain of arsenopyrite found
Figure 4 zone visible along the outer margin. (B) STEM–EDS
in gold mine tailings; the grain has partially oxidized and is data collected along the path shown in (A) using a nominal probe
surrounded by a rim of secondary Ca–Fe arsenate. Source : Corriveau size of 5 nm and showing concentrations in mol%. Source : Petrunic
et al . (2011) et al . 2009, reprinted with permission

E lements 384 D ecember 2011

 samples from several abandoned gold mines in Nova Scotia,
Meunier et al. (2010) showed that As bioaccessibility (that
is, the fraction of arsenic dissolved in simulated gastric and
intestinal fluids) depends on As mineralogy. As explained
by Plumlee and Morman (2011), bioaccessibility testing
provides a measure of how easily potentially toxic elements
are released to bodily fluids. In particular, samples rich in
scorodite (FeAsO4 ·2H2O) and arsenopyrite exhibited rela-
tively low As bioaccessibility, whereas samples containing
C a – Fe a r senate m i nera ls, suc h as y u kon ite
[Ca7Fe12 (AsO4)10 (OH) 20 ·15H2O], have relatively high bioac-
cessibility. This is consistent with the known character and
geochemical behavior of these minerals. It is not surprising
that the coarse-grained primary arsenopyrite does not
release much As (0.62% of total As present in the sample
which is mostly arsenopyrite) during the 1-hour gastric
(pH = 1.5) and 4-hour intestinal (pH = 7) bioaccessibility
tests. The scorodite-rich sample released only 0.13% of its
total As in the gastric step and 0.32% in the intestinal step,
reflecting the pH dependence of scorodite solubility. The
Figure 5
Micro-XRD results from a transect across cemented significantly higher As bioaccessibility (49%, 29%) associ-
layers in an As-rich hardpan in gold-mine tailings. The ated with samples where Ca–Fe arsenate is the major As
left and center panels of the figure show diffraction data for the
three points indicated in the thin section photo (transmitted +
host is probably related to the fact that these tailings
reflected light; ASP = arsenopyrite) on the right. These data can be contain residual carbonate and that the As-hosting
compared with those from reference minerals in order to identify Ca-bearing minerals dissolve more readily in the gastric
the phases present. The stick patterns shown in the central panel fluid. From the point of view of the oral ingestion of dust,
correspond to scorodite (FeAsO 4 ·2H2O, spot 1, top), a mixture of the high Ca/As tailings might therefore be considered the
HFA (= amorphous hydrous ferric arsenate) and scorodite (spot 2,
middle), and HFA with traces of tooeleite [Fe6 (AsO3) 4 (SO 4) riskiest material (Meunier et al. 2010).
(OH) 4 ∙4H2O, spot 3, bottom]. In the middle and bottom stick
figures, the HFA component does not have sticks due to its amor-
phous nature but is identified by the broad hump in these patterns. A
Scorodite, which is stable at low pH, is found in close proximity to
oxidizing arsenopyrite where pore water is acid. Moving away from
the arsenopyrite, grain-scale pH changes result in the differing
cement composition, which influences the stability and long-term
As sequestration of the hardpan. Source : D e Sisto et al. (2011)

for recreational purposes, such as dirt biking and trail

walking (Fig. 6a). The total As concentration (in the
<150 µm fraction) measured in a suite of 14 near-surface
materials from sites throughout Nova Scotia ranges from
0.07 wt% As to over 30 wt% As. Arsenic in the tailings was
originally present mainly as arsenopyrite (FeAsS), but
decades of exposure to the atmosphere has transformed B
the sulfide into various arsenate and, more rarely, arsenite
minerals (Walker et al. 2009). Typically, a near-surface tail-
ings sample contains at least four types of As-hosting phases.
In the Montague gold district, one of the abandoned and
unremediated sites within a few kilometers of the city of
Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, several geochemical types of mine
wastes have been delimited, based on element ratios and
the balance between acid-generating sulfide and neutral-
izing carbonate minerals. The typical tailings exposed at
surface and their unoxidized counterparts submerged in
the nearby wetland have a ratio of acid potential to neutral-
ization potential slightly less than one, indicating that
these materials may generate acid (Fig. 6b). Past processing
practices resulted in the deposition of sulfide concentrates,
some of which have weathered to form hardpans consisting
of residual arsenopyrite cemented by Fe arsenate minerals
(DeSisto et al 2011). These materials are clearly acid-gener-
ating (Fig. 6b). In terms of their influence on surface water
and groundwater compositions, the typical tailings, unoxi-
dized tailings and hardpan would conventionally be
considered the riskiest mine waste and warrant the most (A) Children riding dirt bikes on abandoned tailings at
attention for remediation. The high-Ca/As tailings found Figure 6 Montague Gold Mines, Nova Scotia, Canada, which
in some areas of the site provide neutral drainage and are contain very high concentrations of arsenic. Source : S. D e Sisto.
not acid-generating (Fig. 6b) and, on these grounds, would (B) Net acid and net neutralization potentials of different types of
tailings from Montague. The standard unit for expressing AP (acid
be considered less risky.
potential) and NP (neutralization potential) is the equivalent kg
However, a different interpretation of the risk associated CaCO3 per tonne. Criteria are from Price (2009). See text for
with this site arises when we consider the possible oral further explanation. Courtesy of J. K avalench, Q ueen’s U niversity, and
M. B. Parsons, G eological Survey of C anada (Atlantic)
ingestion of fine dust. Based on near-surface tailings

E lements 385 D ecember 2011

OUTLOOK as tailings-dam failures or community health impacts
related to mining are able to tackle or interpret mine waste
Reducing the environmental and health impact of mine
mineralogy. Our professional community can make impor-
wastes requires expertise and skills from several disciplines.
tant contributions in this area by providing expertise and
Central to these are geochemistry and mineralogy. In
access to novel analytical techniques and by training
particular, understanding mineral–water interaction
students.
requires characterizing phases at the micrometer scale or
less, which is usually accomplished by a combination of
conventional and newly developed analytical techniques. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Very few of those who make multimillion-dollar decisions I am very grateful for the contributions from many grad-
to grant permits for mines to operate, approve clean-up uate students, research associates and colleagues.
plans for mine closure, or cope with disastrous events such

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