Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

Radiation Interaction with Matter

Fall, 2018

Kyoung-Jae Chung

Department of Nuclear Engineering

Seoul National University
 Introduction

 Particulate or wave
 Charged or neutral

2/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Introduction

 Radiation emitted by radioactive nuclides, both inside and outside our bodies,
interacts with our tissues.
 Photons (EM waves) are far more abundant than matter in our universe; for
every nucleon there are about 109 photons.
 Cosmic rays and the subatomic debris they create during interactions in the
atmosphere also impinge on us (e.g. ~109 neutrinos/cm2·s).
 For radiation to produce biological damage, it must first interact with the tissue
and ionize cellular atoms, which, in turn, alter molecular bonds and change the
chemistry of the cells. Likewise, for radiation to produce damage in structural
and electrical materials, it must cause interactions that disrupt crystalline and
molecular bonds.
 Such radiation must be capable of creating ion-electron pairs and is termed
ionizing radiation (directly ionizing or indirectly ionizing).
 In this lecture, we study how the ionizing radiations interact with matter.
Particular emphasis is given to how the radiations are attenuated as they pass
through a medium, and to quantify the rate at which they interact and transfer
energy to the medium.

3/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Attenuation of neutral particle beams

 The interaction of a photon or neutron with constituents of matter is dominated

by short-range forces. Consequently, unlike charged particles, neutral particles
move in straight lines through a medium, punctuated by occasional “point”
interactions, in which the neutral particle may be absorbed or scattered or cause
some other type of reaction.
 The interaction may be a scattering of the incident radiation accompanied by a
change in its energy. A scattering interaction may be elastic or inelastic.
 It is important to note that, for both elastic and inelastic scattering, unique
relationships between energy exchanges and angles of scattering arise from
conservation of energy and linear momentum.

 Linear interaction coefficient: the probability, per unit differential path length of
travel, that a particle undergoes an 𝑖𝑖th type of interaction.
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 (∆𝑥𝑥) 1
𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 ≡ lim m -1 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 =
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 𝜆𝜆𝑖𝑖

𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡 (𝐸𝐸) = � 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 (𝐸𝐸) Scattering, absorption, etc Mean free path for 𝑖𝑖th
𝑖𝑖 interaction [unit: m]
4/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018
 Attenuation of uncollided radiation

 The probability an uncollided particle interacts as it crosses Δ𝑥𝑥 is

𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 (𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝑥𝑥)
𝑃𝑃 Δ𝑥𝑥 =
𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥
𝑃𝑃 ∆𝑥𝑥 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝑥𝑥 1 𝑑𝑑𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 (𝑥𝑥) 1
𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡 ≡ lim = lim ≡−
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 (𝑥𝑥)

𝑑𝑑𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 (𝑥𝑥)
= −𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 The solution for the uncollided intensity is

𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 0 𝑒𝑒 −𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥

 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) that a particle interacts some where along a

path of length 𝑥𝑥 is

𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥
𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = 1 − 𝑜𝑜 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥
𝐼𝐼 0
5/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018
 Average travel distance before an interaction

 Let 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 be the probability that a particle interacts for the first time between 𝑥𝑥
and 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Then

 The mean-free-path length: the average distance 𝑥𝑥 traveled by a neutral particle

to the site of its first interaction, namely, the average distance such a particle
travels before it interacts.
∞ ∞
1
𝑥𝑥̅ = � 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡 � 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = = 𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡 m
0 0 𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡

 Half thickness: the thickness of a medium

required for half of the incident radiation to
undergo an interaction.
ln 2
𝑥𝑥1/2 = = 0.693 𝑥𝑥̅
𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡
6/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018
 (Microscopic) cross section

 The linear coefficient 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 (𝐸𝐸) depends on the type and energy 𝐸𝐸 of the incident
particle, the type of interaction 𝑖𝑖, and the composition and density of the
interacting medium.
𝜌𝜌𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 1
𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝑁𝑁 = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝜆𝜆𝑖𝑖 =
𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝑁𝑁

Target number density [m-3]

Microscopic cross section for reaction 𝑖𝑖 [m2 or cm2] :
depends on the incident particle energy and target
material.

 1 barn = 1x10-28 m2 or 1x10-24 cm2

 Data on cross sections and linear interaction coefficients, especially for photons,
are frequently expressed as the ratio of 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 to the density 𝜌𝜌, called the mass
interaction coefficient for reaction 𝑖𝑖.
𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎
= = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 Independent of target density [m2/kg, cm2/g]
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴
7/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018
 Flux: flow rate per unit area

 The intensity of a beam is the flow (number per unit time) of radiation particles
that cross a unit area perpendicular to the beam direction, and has dimensions,
for example, of (cm−2 s−1).
 Flux is given by

𝜙𝜙 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 Γ = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

 Fluence
𝑡𝑡2
Φ = � 𝜙𝜙𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡1

 Example of flux
 Particle flux [#/m2·s]
 Mass flux [kg/m2·s]
 Momentum flux [N·s/m2·s]
 Heat or energy flux [J/m2·s]

8/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Photon interaction: (1) photoelectric effect

 During the photoelectric effect, energy from the incident photon is absorbed by
an inner shell electron, which is then ejected out of the atom.
 The energy of the ejected electron can be determined based on the energy of
the incoming photon and the binding energy that held the electron to the atom:
𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾 − 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏
 As consequence of the ejection of an inner shell electron, electrons from outer
shells will cascade down from outer to inner shells.  characteristic X-ray or
Auger electron emission.
𝑍𝑍 4~5
 Rough approximation of cross section: 𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∝ 3.5
𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾

9/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Photon interaction: (2) Compton scattering

 Compton scattering refers to the inelastic scattering of photons from free or

loosely bound electrons which are at rest. Since the electron is almost free, it
may also get scattered as a result of the collision.
 The energy or wavelength of the scattered photon:
𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾0 ℎ
𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾 = 𝜆𝜆 = 𝜆𝜆0 + 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃
𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾0 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐
1+ 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2
 Extreme cases:

𝜃𝜃 = 0 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾 = 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾0

𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾0
𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋/2 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾 =
𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾0
1+
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2

𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾0 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2
𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾 = 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = ≈ = 255 keV
2𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾0 2
1+
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2
10/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018
 [Optional] Typical 𝜸𝜸-ray spectrum

 The maximum energy of the scattered electron can be calculated from

𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾 − 255 keV

11/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Photon interaction: (3) pair production

 Pair production is the process that results in the conversion of a photon into an
electron-positron pair. Since photon has no rest mass, we can say that this
process converts energy into mass according to 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 .
 Pair production is the inverse process of the electron-positron annihilation.
 Pair production always takes place in a material, whereas electron-positron
annihilation has no such requirement. Why?
 Threshold photon energy for pair production:

𝐸𝐸𝛾𝛾,𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≥ 2𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 = 1.022 MeV

𝛾𝛾 + 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑒𝑒 − + 𝑒𝑒 + + 𝑋𝑋 ∗

12/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Photon attenuation coefficient

13/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Neutron interaction

 The interaction processes of neutrons with matter are fundamentally different

from those for the interactions of photons. Whereas photons interact, more often,
with the atomic electrons, neutrons interact essentially only with the atomic
nucleus.
 The description of the interaction of a neutron with a nucleus involves complex
interactions between all the nucleons in the nucleus and the incident neutron,
and, consequently, fundamental theories which can be used to predict neutron
cross-section variations in any accurate way are still lacking.

14/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Attenuation of charged particle

 Charged particles such as beta particles, alpha particles, and fission fragments,
are directly ionizing radiation and interact with the ambient medium primarily
through the long-range electromagnetic (Coulomb) force.
 Charged particles traveling through matter lose energy in the following ways:
 Coulomb interactions with electrons and nuclei
 Emission of electromagnetic radiation (bremsstrahlung)
 Nuclear interactions
 Emission of Cerenkov radiation

 Since the radius of the nucleus is approximately 10−14 m and the radius of the
atom is 10−10 m, one might expect that

No. of interactions with electrons 10−10 2

= ≈ 108
No. of interactions with nuclei 10−14 2

Collisions with atomic electrons are more numerous than with nuclei

 Coulomb interaction: ionization (positive ions), excitation (line emissions)

15/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Range of charged particles

 Energetic charged particles cause thousands of ionizations and excitations of

the atoms along their path before they are slowed and become part of the
ambient medium.
 The result of charged particle interaction with medium is a reduction in the
energy of the particles as they pass through the medium.
 Stopping power (S) : the energy loss per unit length of the material a charged
particle traverses.
 Charged particles, unlike photons and neutrons, can travel only a certain
maximum distance in matter, called the range (R), before they are stopped.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑆𝑆 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

0 −1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Q1. What is the difference between the range and the mean-free-path?
16/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018
 Range of charged particles

 Heavy charged particles

 Electrons (beta particles)

17/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Range of charged particles

 Heavy charged particles

𝜌𝜌𝑅𝑅

 Electrons (beta particles)

18/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018

 Bragg peak

Protons: 135 MeV 𝛼𝛼 → 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙)

Carbon ions: 3000 MeV
Electrons: 20 MeV

19/19 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2018