#Feedback Amplifiers

A.A Science and Technology University School of Info.
Science and Technology
Chapter One
Feedback Amplifiers
A feedback amplifier is one in which a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the input
circuit. This partial dependence of amplifier output on its input helps to control the output. A
feedback amplifier consists of two parts: an amplifier and a feedback circuit.
(i) Positive feedback

If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to increase the input voltage (i.e. it is in phase
with it), then it is called positive feedback. Other names for it are: regenerative or direct
feedback. Since positive feedback produces excessive distortion, it is seldom used in amplifiers.
However, because it increases the power of the original signal, it is used in oscillator circuits.
(ii) Negative feedback

If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to reduce the amplifier input (i.e. it is 180°
out of phase with it), then it is called negative feedback. Other names for it are: degenerative or
inverse feedback. Negative feedback is frequently used in amplifier circuits.
Principle of Feedback Amplifiers

For an ordinary amplifier i.e. one without feedback, the voltage gain is given by the ratio of the
output voltage Vo and input voltage Vi. As shown in the block diagram of Fig. 1.1, the input
voltage Vi is amplified by a factor of A to the value Vo of the output voltage.
Fig. 1.1
A = Vo /Vi
This gain A is often called open-loop gain.
Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 1

A.A Science and Technology University School of Info. Science and Technology
Suppose a feedback loop is added to the amplifier (Fig. 1.2). If Vo´ is the output voltage with
feedback, then a fraction β* of this voltage is applied to the input voltage which, therefore,
becomes (Vi ± βVo´) depending on whether the feedback voltage is in phase or antiphase with it.
Assuming positive feedback, the input voltage will become (Vi + βVo´). When amplified A
times, it becomes A(Vi + βVo´).
Fig 1.2
Therefore
A (Vi + βVo´) = Vo´
or
Vo´ (1 – βA) =AVi
The amplifier gain A´ with feedback is given by
= =
1−
= is called positive feedback
= = =
1 − (− ) 1+
= is called negative feedback
The term ‘βA’ is called feedback factor whereas β is known as feedback ratio. The expression (1
± βA) is called loop gain. The amplifier gain A´ with feedback is also referred to as closed loop
gain because it is the gain obtained after the feedback loop is closed. The sacrifice factor is
defined as S = A/A´.

(a) Negative Feedback

′
The amplifier gain with negative feedback is given by =
Obviously, A´ < A because | 1 + βA | > 1.

Suppose, A = 90 and β = 1/10 = 0.1
Then, gain without feedback is 90 and with negative feedback is
′
90 90
= = = =9
1+ 1 + 0.1 90 10
As seen, negative feedback reduces the amplifier gain. That is why it is called degenerative
feedback. A lot of voltage gain is sacrificed due to negative feedback. When | βA | » 1, then
′
1
≅ ≅
It means that A´ depends only on β. But it is very stable because it is not affected by changes in
temperature, device parameters, supply voltage and from the aging of circuit components etc.
Since resistors can be selected very precisely with almost zero temperature-coefficient of
resistance, it is possible to achieve highly precise and stable gain with negative feedback.
(b) Positive Feedback

The amplifier gain with positive feedback is given by
′ ′
= Since [1- βA] < 1, >
Suppose gain without feedback is 90 and β = 1/100 = 0.01, then gain with positive feedback is
′
90
= = 900
1 − (0.01 90)
Since positive feedback increases the amplifier gain. It is called regenerative feedback. If βA =
1, then mathematically, the gain becomes infinite which simply means that there is an output
without any input! However, electrically speaking, this cannot happen. What actually happens is
that the amplifier becomes an oscillator which supplies its own input. In fact, two important and
necessary conditions for circuit oscillation are
1. The feedback must be positive,
2. Feedback factor must be unity i.e. βA = +1

Advantages of Negative Feedback

The numerous advantages of negative feedback are:
1. higher fidelity i.e. more linear operation
2. highly stabilized gain
3. increased bandwidth i.e. improved frequency response
4. less amplitude distortion
5. less harmonic distortion
6. less frequency distortion
7. less phase distortion
8. reduced noise
9. input and output impedances can be modified as desired
Example 1.1
In the series-parallel (SP) feedback amplifier of Fig. 1.3, calculate
(a) open-loop gain of the amplifier (c) closed-loop gain of the amplifier
(b) gain of the feedback network (d) sacrifice factor, S
Fig 1.3
Solution
(a) Since 1 mV goes into the amplifier and 10 V comes out
10
= = 10000
1
(b) The feedback network is being driven by the output voltage of 10 V.
Gain of the feedback network β
250
= = = 0.025
10

(c) So far as the feedback amplifier is concerned, input is (250 + 1) = 251 mV and final
output is 10 V.
Hence, gain with feedback is
A´ = 10 V/251 mV = 40
(d) The sacrifice factor is given by
10000
= ′
= = 250
40
Example 1.2
Calculate the gain of a negative feedback amplifier whose gain without feedback is 1000 and β =
1/10. To what value should the input voltage be increased in order that the output voltage with
feedback equals the output voltage without feedback?
Solution
Since | βA | » 1, the closed-loop gain is
1 1
≅ ≅ = 10
1⁄10
The new increased input voltage is given by
Vi´ = Vi (1 + βA) = 50 (1 + 0.04 × 100) = 250 mV
Gain Stability
The gain of an amplifier with negative feedback is given by
′
=
1+
Taking logs of both sides, we have loge A´ = loge A – loge (1 + βA)
Differentiating both sides, we get
′
. 1 1 ( ⁄ )
′
= − = − = =
1+ 1+ 1+ 1+
If βA » 1, then the above expression becomes
′
1
′
= .
Example 1.3
An amplifier has an open-loop gain of 400 and a feedback of 0.1. If open-loop gain changes by
20% due to temperature, find the percentage change in closed-loop gain.

Solution
Here, A = 400, β = 0.1, dA/A = 20% = 0.2
Now,
dA 1 dA 1
= . = . 20% = 0.5 %
A βA A 0.1x400
It is seen that while the amplifier gain changes by 20%, the feedback gain changes by only 0.5%
i.e. an improvement of 20/0.5 = 40 times
Feedback over Several Stages

Multistage amplifiers are used to achieve greater voltage or current amplification or both. In such
a case, we have a choice of applying negative feedback to improve amplifier performance. Either
we apply some feedback across each stage or we can put it in one loop across the whole
amplifier.
A multistage amplifier is shown in Fig. 1.4. In Fig. 1.4 (a) each stage of the n-stage amplifier has
a feedback applied to it. Let A and β1 be the open-loop gain and feedback ratio respectively of
each stage and A1 the overall gain of the amplifier. Fig. 1.4 (b) shows the arrangement where n
amplifiers have been cascaded in order to get a total gain of An. Let the overall feedback factor
be β2 and the overall gain A2. The values of the two gains are given as
Fig. 1.4
= =
1+ 1+
Differentiating the above two expressions, we get

= . = .
1+ 1+
For the two circuits to have the same overall gain, A1 = A2. Hence, from Eqn. (i) above, we get
(1 − 1 ) = 1 +
⁄ 1
=
⁄ (1 + )
If n = 1, then the denominator in the above equation becomes unity so that fractional gain
variations are the same as expected. However, for n > 1 and with (1 + Aβ1) being a normally
large quantity, the expression dA2/A2 will be less than dA1/A1. It means that the overall feedback
would appear to be beneficial as far as stabilizing of the gain is concerned.
Example 1.4
An amplifier with 10% negative feedback has an open-loop gain of 50. If open-loop gain
increases by 10%, what is the percentage change in the closed-loop gain?
Solution
′ ′
Let and be the closed-loop gains in the two cases and A1 and A2 the open-loop gains
respectively.
′
(i) = = = 8.33
.
(ii) When open-loop gain changes by 10%, then A2 = 50 + 0.1 × 50 = 55

′ 55
∴ = = = 8.46
1+ 1 + 0.1 55
∴ Percentage change in closed-loop gain is
′ ′
− 8.46 − 8.33
′ 100 = 100 = 1.56%
8.33
Example 1.5
Write down formulae for (i) gain (ii) harmonic distortion of a negative feedback amplifier in
terms of gain and distortion without feedback and feedback factor. If gain without feedback is 36

dB and harmonic distortion at the normal output level is 10%, what is (a) gain and (b) distortion
when negative feedback is applied, the feedback factor being 16 dB.
Solution
Distortion ratio is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the largest harmonic to the amplitude
of the fundamental.
′
= =
1+
Now, dB gain = 20 log10 A
36 = 20 log10 A, A = 63
dB feedback factor = 20 log10 βA
16 = 20 log10 βA or βA = 6.3
(a) Af = A/(1 + βA) = 63/(1 + 6.3) = 6.63 or 18.72 dB

(b) D´ = 10 per cent/ (1 + 6.3) = 1.4 per cent
Increased Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an amplifier without feedback is equal to the separation between the 3 dB
frequencies f1 and f2.
BW = f2 – f1
Where f1 = lower 3 dB frequency, and f2 = upper 3 dB frequency. If A is its gain, the gain-
bandwidth product is A × BW.
Now, when negative feedback is applied, the amplifier gain is reduced. Since the gain-bandwidth
product has to remain the same in both cases, it is obvious that the bandwidth must increase to
compensate for the decrease in gain. It can be proved that with negative feedback, the lower and
upper 3 dB frequencies of an amplifier become.
( ′) = ( ) = (1 + )
1+

Fig. 1.5
As seen from Fig. 1.5, f1´ has decreased whereas f2´ has increased thereby giving a wider
separation or bandwidth. Since gain-bandwidth product is the same in both cases.
A × BW = A´ × BW´ or A (f2 – f ´1) = A (f ´2 – f ´1)
Example 1.6
An RC-coupled amplifier has a mid-frequency gain of 200 and a frequency response from 100
Hz to 20 kHz. A negative feedback network with β = 0.02 is incorporated into the amplifier
circuit. Determine the new system performance.
Solution
′
200
= = = 40
1+ 1 + 0.02 200
′ 100
= = = 20
1+ 1 + 0.02 200
f2 ´ = f0 (1 + βA) = 20(1 + 0.02 × 200) = 100 Hz

dW´ = f2´– f1´ ≅ 100 kHz
Incidentally, it may be proved that gain-bandwidth product remains constant in both cases.
dW = f2 – f1 ≅ 20 kHz
A × dW = 200 × 20 = 4000 kHz;
A´ × dW´= 40 ×100 = 4000 kHz
As expected, the two are equal.

Forms of Negative Feedback
The four basic arrangements for using negative feedback are shown in the block diagram of Fig.
1.6. As seen, both voltage and current can be feedback to the input either in series or in parallel.
The output voltage provides input in Fig. 1.6 (a) and (b). However, the input to the feedback
network is derived from the output current in Fig. 1.6 (c) and (d).
(a) Voltage-series Feedback

It is shown in Fig. 1.6 (a). It is also called shunt-derived series-fed feedback. The amplifier and
feedback circuit are connected series-parallel. Here, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage via the feedback. As seen, the input to the feedback network is in
parallel with the output of the amplifier. Therefore, so far as Vo is concerned, output resistance
of the amplifier is reduced by the shunting effect of the input to the feedback network. It can be
proved that
′
=
1+
Similarly, Vi sees two circuit elements in series: (i) the input resistance of the amplifier and (ii)
output resistance of the feedback network. Hence, input resistance of the amplifier as a whole is
increased due to feedback. It can be proved that
Ri´ =Ri (1 + β A)
In fact, series feedback always increases the input impedance by a factor of (1 + βA). (b)
Voltage-shunt Feedback It is shown in Fig. 1.6 (b). It is also known as shunt-derived shunt-fed
feedback i.e. it is parallel-parallel (PP) prototype. Here, a small portion of the output voltage is
coupled back to the input voltage parallel (shunt).
Since the feedback network shunts both the output and input of the amplifier, it decreases both
its output and input impedances by a factor of 1/(1 + βA)
A shunt feedback always decreases input impedance.
(c) Current-series Feedback
It is shown in Fig. 1.6 (c). It is also known as series-derived series-fed feedback. As seen, it is a
series-series (SS) circuit. Here, a part of the output current is made to feedback a proportional

voltage in series with the input. Since it is a series pick-up and a series feedback, both the input
and output impedances of the amplifier are increased due to feedback.
(d) Current-shunt Feedback
It is shown in Fig. 1.6 (d). It is also referred to as series-derived shunt-fed feedback. It is a
parallel-series (PS) prototype. Here, the feedback network picks up a part of the output current
and develops a feedback voltage in parallel (shunt) with the input voltage. As seen, feedback
network shunts the input but is in series with the output. Hence, output resistance of the amplifier
is increased whereas its input resistance is decreased by a factor of loop gain.
Fig. 1.6
The effects of negative feedback on amplifier characteristics are summarized below:
Characteristics Type of Feedback

Voltage series Voltage shunt Current series Current shunt
Voltage gain decreases decreases decreases decreases
Bandwidth increases increases increases increases
Harmonic Distortion decreases decreases decreases decreases
Noise decreases decreases decreases decreases
Input Resistance increases decreases increases decreases
Output Resistance decreases decreases increases increases

Shunt-derived Series-fed Voltage Feedback

The basic principle of such a voltage-controlled feedback is illustrated by the block diagram of
Fig.1.7. Here, the feedback voltage is derived from the voltage divider circuit formed of R1 and
R2. As seen, the voltage drop across R1 forms the feedback voltage Vf.
= =
+
Fig.1.7
Example 1.7
In the voltage-controlled negative feedback amplifier of Fig. 1.8, calculate (a) voltage gain
without feedback (b) feedback factor (c) voltage gain with feedback. Neglect VBE and use re = 25
mV/IE.
Fig. 1.8
Solution
(a) = =
Now, = = 10
.
= = 100 10 =1

25
= = 25
1
10
= = 400
25
.
(b) = = ( . )
= 0.13
= 0.13 400 = 52
′
(c) = = = 7.55
Current-series Feedback Amplifier
Fig. 1.9 shows a series-derived series-fed feedback amplifier circuit. Since the emitter resistor is
unbypassed, it effectively provides current-series feedback. When IE passes through RE, the
feedback voltage drop Vf = IE RE is developed which is applied in phase opposition to the input
voltage Vi. This negative feedback reduces the output voltage V0. This feedback can, however,
be eliminated by either removing or bypassing the emitter resistor.
It can be proved that
= ; = ; =
+
Fig.1.9
Example 1.8
For the current-series feedback amplifier of Fig.1.9, calculate (i) voltage gain without feedback,
(ii) feedback factor, (iii) voltage gain with feedback. Neglect VBE and use re = 25 mV/IE.

Solution
′
= ; = ; =
+
(i) =
Now, = ⁄
= =1
/
25
= = 25
10
= = = 400
25
(ii) = = = 0.1
= 0.1 400 = 40
′
(iii) = = = 9.756
′
400
= = = 9.756
1+ 1 + 400
Voltage-shunt Negative Feedback Amplifier

The circuit of such an amplifier is shown in Fig. 1.10. As seen, a portion of the output voltage is
coupled through RE in parallel with the input signal at the base. This feedback stabilizes the
overall gain while decreasing both the input and output resistances. It can be proved that β =
RC/RF.
Fig.1.10

Current-shunt Negative Feedback Amplifier

The two-stage amplifier employing such a feedback is shown in Fig. 1.11. The feedback circuit
(consisting of CF and R F) samples the output current and develops a feedback voltage in parallel
with the input voltage. The unbypassed emitter resistor of Q2 provides current sensing. The
polarity of the feedback voltage is such that it provides the negative feedback.
Fig.1.11

Chapter Two
Differential Amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers
The operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier usable from 0 to over 1MHz to
which feedback is added to control its overall response characteristic i.e. gain and bandwidth.
The op-amp exhibits the gain down to zero frequency.
Such direct coupled (dc) amplifiers do not use blocking (coupling and by pass) capacitors since
these would reduce the amplification to zero at zero frequency. Large by pass capacitors may be
used but it is not possible to fabricate large capacitors on an IC chip. The capacitors fabricated
are usually less than 20 pf. Transistor, diodes and resistors are also fabricated on the same chip.
Differential Amplifiers
Differential amplifier is a basic building block of an op-amp. The function of a differential
amplifier is to amplify the difference between two input signals.
How the differential amplifier is developed? Let us consider two emitter-biased circuits as shown
in fig.2.1.
Fig.2.1
The two transistors Q1 and Q2 have identical characteristics. The resistances of the circuits are
equal, i.e. RE1 = RE2, RC1 = RC2 and the magnitude of +VCC is equal to the magnitude of? VEE.
These voltages are measured with respect to ground.

To make a differential amplifier, the two circuits are connected as shown in fig.2.1. The two
+VCC and? VEE supply terminals are made common because they are same. The two emitters are
also connected and the parallel combination of RE1 and RE2 is replaced by a resistance RE. The
two input signals v1 & v2 are applied at the base of Q1 and at the base of Q2. The output voltage
is taken between two collectors. The collector resistances are equal and therefore denoted by RC
= RC1 = RC2.
Ideally, the output voltage is zero when the two inputs are equal. When v1 is greater than v2 the
output voltage with the polarity shown appears. When v1 is less than v2, the output voltage has
the opposite polarity. The differential amplifiers are of different configurations.
The four differential amplifier configurations are following:

1. Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier
2. Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier
3. Single input balanced output differential amplifier
4. Single input unbalanced output differential amplifier

Fig.2.2
These configurations are shown in fig. 2.2, and are defined by number of input signals used and
the way an output voltage is measured. If use two input signals, the configuration is said to be
dual input, otherwise it is a single input configuration. On the other hand, if the output voltage is
measured between two collectors, it is referred to as a balanced output because both the
collectors are at the same dc potential w.r.t. ground. If the output is measured at one of the
collectors w.r.t. ground, the configuration is called an unbalanced output.
A multistage amplifier with a desired gain can be obtained using direct connection between
successive stages of differential amplifiers. The advantage of direct coupling is that it removes
the lower cut off frequency imposed by the coupling capacitors, and they are therefore, capable
of amplifying dc as well as ac input signals.
Dual Input, Balanced Output Differential Amplifier

The circuit is shown in fig. 2.1, v1 and v2 are the two inputs, applied to the bases of Q1 and Q2
transistors. The output voltage is measured between the two collectors C1 and C2, which are at
same dc potentials.
D.C. Analysis
To obtain the operating point (ICQ and VCEQ) for differential amplifier dc equivalent circuit is
drawn by reducing the input voltages v1 and v2 to zero as shown in fig.2.3.

Fig.2.3
The internal resistances of the input signals are denoted by RS because RS1= RS2. Since both
emitters biased sections of the different amplifier are symmetrical in all respects, therefore, the
operating point for only one section need to be determined. The same values of ICQ and VCEQ can
be used for second transistor Q2.
Applying KVL to the base emitter loop of the transistor Q1

+ +2 =
= ≅
−
= =
2 + ⁄
= 0.7 0.2
Generally, ≪ 2 because is the internal resistance of input signal.
−
= =
2

The value of RE is set up the emitter current in transistor Q1 and Q2 for a given value of VEE. The
emitter current in Q1 and Q2 are independent of collector resistance RC.
The voltage at the emitter of Q1 is approximately equal to -VBE if the voltage drop across R is
negligible. Knowing the value of IC the voltage at the collector VC is given by
VC =VCC - IC RC
and VCE = VC - VE
= VCC - IC RC + VBE
VCE = VCC + VBE - ICRC
From the two equations VCEQ and ICQ can be determined. This dc analysis is applicable for all
types of differential amplifier.
Example 2.1
The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced output differential amplifier
of fig.2.1: RC = 2.2 kΩ, RE = 4.7 kΩ, Rin 1 = Rin 2 = 50 Ω, +VCC = 10V, -VEE = -10 V, βdc =100
and VBE = 0.715V. Determine the operating points (ICQ and VCEQ) of the two transistors.
Solution:
The value of ICQ can be obtained from equation (Eqn 1)
−
= =
2 + ⁄
10 − 0.715
= = = 0.988
9.4 + 50⁄100
The voltage VCEQ can be obtained from equation (Eqn 2).
= + −
= 10 + 0.715 − (2.2 )(0.988 )

= 8.54

The values of ICQ and VCEQ are same for both the transistors.
Dual Input, Balanced Output Difference Amplifier

The circuit is shown in fig.2.4 v1 and v2 are the two inputs, applied to the bases of Q1 and Q2
transistors. The output voltage is measured between the two collectors C1 and C2, which are at
same dc potentials.
Fig.2.4
A.C. Analysis
In previous lecture dc analysis has been done to obtain the operating point of the two transistors.
To find the voltage gain Ad and the input resistance Ri of the differential amplifier, the ac
equivalent circuit is drawn using r-parameters as shown in fig.2.5. The dc voltages are reduced to
zero and the ac equivalent of CE configuration is used.

Fig.2.5
Since the two dc emitter currents are equal. Therefore, resistance r'e1 and r'e2 are also equal and
designated by r'e. This voltage across each collector resistance is shown 180° out of phase with
respect to the input voltages v1 and v2. This is same as in CE configuration. The polarity of the
output voltage is shown in Figure. The collector C2 is assumed to be more positive with respect
to collector C1 even though both are negative with respect to ground.
Applying KVL in two loops 1 & 2

′
= + +( + )
′
= + +( + )
Substituting current relations,
= , =
′
= + + ( + )
′
= + + ( + )
Again, assuming RS1/β and RS2/β are very small in comparison with RE and re' and therefore
neglecting these terms,

= ( ′+ ) +
= ( ′+ ) +
Solving these two equations, ie1 and ie2 can be calculated.
( + ) −
=
( + ) −
( + ) −
=
( + ) −
The output voltage VO is given by
VO = VC2 - VC1
= -RC iC2 - (-RC iC1)
= RC (iC1 - iC2)
= RC (ie1 - ie2)
Substituting ie1, & ie2 in the above expression
( + ) − ( + ) −
= ′
− ′
( + ) − ( + ) −
( − )( ′ − 2 )
= ′( ′+2 )
Therefore,
= ′
( − )
Thus a differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signals. Defining the
difference of input signals as vd = v1 - v2 the voltage gain of the dual input balanced output
differential amplifier can be given by
= = ′
Differential Input Resistance:

Differential input resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at
either input terminal with the other terminal grounded. This means that the input resistance Ri1

seen from the input signal source v1 is determined with the signal source v2 set at zero. Similarly,
the input signal v1 is set at zero to determine the input resistance Ri2 seen from the input signal
source v2. Resistance RS1 and RS2 are ignored because they are very small.
= / =0
= / =0
Substituting ie1,
′( ′
−2 )
= ′+ )
Since ≫
∴ +2 ≫2 + ≫
∴ =2
Similarly,
= / =0
= / =0
∴ =2
The factor of 2 arises because re' of each transistor is in series.
To get very high input impedance with differential amplifier is to use Darlington transistors or
FET.
Output Resistance
Output resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at output
terminal with respect to ground. Therefore, the output resistance RO1 measured between collector
C1 and ground is equal to that of the collector resistance RC. Similarly the output resistance RO2
measured at C2 with respect to ground is equal to that of the collector resistor RC.

RO1 = RO2 = RC
The current gain of the differential amplifier is undefined. Like CE amplifier the differential
amplifier is a small signal amplifier. It is generally used as a voltage amplifier and not as current
or power amplifier.
Example 2.2
The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced-output differential amplifier:
RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB = 4.7 kΩ, Rin1 = Rin2 = 50 Ω, +VCC= 10V, -VEE = -10 V, βdc =100 and VBE =
0.715V.
a. Determine the voltage gain
b. Determine the input resistance
c. Determine the output resistance
Solution:
(a). the parameters of the amplifiers are same as discussed in example 2.1. The operating point of
the two transistors obtained in the lecture are given below ICQ = 0.988 mA VCEQ=8.54V
The ac emitter resistance

25 25
= = = 25.3
0.988
Therefore, substituting the known values in voltage gain equation, we obtain
2.2
= = ′
= = 86.96
25.3
(b). The input resistance seen from each input source is given by:
= =2 = (2)(100)(25.3) = 5.06
(c) The output resistance seen looking back into the circuit from each of the two output terminals
is given by
Inverting & Non - inverting Inputs

In a differential amplifier, the output voltage VO is given by
VO = Ad (V1 - V2), When V2 = 0, VO = Ad V1 & when v1 = 0, VO = - Ad V2

Therefore the input voltage V1 is called the non inventing input because positive voltage V1
acting alone produces a positive output voltage VO. Similarly, the positive voltage V2 acting
alone produces a negative output voltage hence V2 is called inverting input. Consequently B1 is
called non - inverting input terminal and B2 is called inverting input terminal.
Common mode Gain and common Mode rejection ratio

A common mode signal is the one that drives both inputs of a differential amplifier equally. The
common mode signal is interference, static and other kinds of undesirable pickup etc.
The connecting wire on the input bases act like small antennas. If a differential amplifier is
operating in an environment with lot of electromagnetic interference, each base picks up an
unwanted interference voltage. If both the transistors were matched in all respects then the
balanced output would be theoretically zero. This is the important characteristic of a differential
amplifier. It discriminates against common mode input signals. In other word, it refuses to
amplify the common mode signals.
The practical effectiveness of rejecting the common signal depends on the degree of matching
between the two CE stages forming the differential amplifier. In other words, more closely are
the currents in the input transistors, the better is the common mode signal rejection e.g. If V1 and
V2 are the two input signals, then the output of a practical op-amp cannot be described by simply
V0 = Ad (V1 - V2)
In practical differential amplifier, the output depends not only on difference signal but also upon
the common mode signal VC (average).
Vd = (V1 – V2) and VC = ½ (V1 + V2)
The output voltage, therefore can be expressed as
VO = A1 V1 + A2 V2
Where A1 & A2 are the voltage amplification from input 1(2) to output under the condition that
input 2 (1) is grounded.
1 1
∴ = + , = −
2 2
Substituting in output voltage equation

1 1
= + + −
2 2
1
= ( − ) +( − )
2
= +
The voltage gain for the difference signal is Ad and for the common mode signal is AC.
The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is expressed by its
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). It is the ratio of differential gain Ad to the common mode
gain AC.
= =
1
∴ = 1+
Date sheet always specify CMRR in decibels CMRR = 20 log CMRR.
Therefore, the differential amplifier should be designed so that is large compared with the ratio
of the common mode signal to the difference signal. If = 1000, VC = 1mV, Vd = 1 µV, then
1 1 1000
= =1
1000 1
It is equal to first term. Hence for an amplifier with = 1000, a 1 µV difference of potential
between two inputs gives the same output as 1mV signal applied with the same polarity to both
inputs.
Dual Input, Unbalanced Output Differential Amplifier:

In this case, two input signals are given however the output is measured at only one of the two
collector w.r.t. ground as shown in fig. 2.6. The output is referred to as an unbalanced output
because the collector at which the output voltage is measured is at some finite dc potential with
respect to ground.

Fig.2.6
In other words, there is some dc voltage at the output terminal without any input signal applied.
DC analysis is exactly the same as that of the first case.
−
= =
2 + ⁄
= + −
AC Analysis
The output voltage gain in this case is given by
= =
2
The voltage gain is half the gain of the dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. Since at
the output there is a dc error voltage, therefore, to reduce the voltage to zero, this configuration is
normally followed by a level translator circuit.
Differential amplifier with swamping resistors

By using external resistors R'E in series with each emitter, the dependence of voltage gain on
variations of r'e can be reduced. It also increases the linearity range of the differential amplifier.
Fig.2.7. shows the differential amplifier with swamping resistor R'E. The value of R'E is usually
large enough to swamp the effect of r'e.

Fig.2.7
+ + +2 =
+ + +2 =
From the equation, can be obtained as

−
= = ′
+2 + ⁄
= + −
The new voltage gain is given by
=
+
The input resistance is given by
= =2 ( + )
The output resistance with or without is the same i.e.
= =
Example 2.3
The specifications are given again for the dual input, unbalanced-output differential amplifier:
RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB= 4.7 kΩ, Rin1 = Rin2= 50Ω, +VCC = 10V, -VEE= -10 V, βdc =100 and VBE=
0.715V.
Determine the voltage gain, input resistance and the output resistance.

Solution:
Since the component values remain unchanged and the biasing arrangement is same, the I CQ and
VCEQ values as well as input and output resistance values for the dual input, unbalanced output
configuration must be the same as those for the dual input, balanced output configuration.
Thus, ICQ = 0.988 mA

VCEQ = 8.54 V
Ri1 = Ri2 = 5.06 kΩ
Ro = 2.2 kΩ
The voltage gain of the dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier is given by
2.2
= = = 43.8
2 2(25.3)
Constant Current Bias

In the dc analysis of differential amplifier, we have seen that the emitter current IE depends upon
the value of βdc. To make operating point stable I E current should be constant irrespective value
of βdc.
For constant IE, RE should be very large. This also increases the value of CMRR but if RE value
is increased to very large value, IE (quiescent operating current) decreases. To maintain same
value of IE, the emitter supply VEE must be increased. To get very high value of resistance RE and
constant IE, current, current bias is used.
Fig.2.8

Fig. 2.8 shows the dual input balanced output differential amplifier using a constant current bias.
The resistance RE is replace by constant current transistor Q3. The dc collector current in Q3 is
established by R1, R2, & RE. Applying the voltage divider rule, the voltage at the base of Q3 is
= (− )
+
= −
=− −
+
− (− )
= =
− −
+
=
Because the two halves of the differential amplifiers are symmetrical, each has half of the current
IC3.
− −
+
= = =
2 2
The collector current, IC3 in transistor Q3 is fixed because no signal is injected into either the
emitter or the base of Q3.
Besides supplying constant emitter current, the constant current bias also provides a very high
source resistance since the ac equivalent or the dc source is ideally an open circuit. Therefore, all
the performance equations obtained for differential amplifier using emitter bias are also valid.
As seen in IE expressions, the current depends upon VBE3. If there is a change in temperature,
VBE, and current IE also changes. To improve thermal stability, a diode is placed in series with
resistance R1as shown in fig. 2.9.

Fig.2.9
This helps to hold the current IE3 constant even though the temperature changes. By applying
KVL to the base circuit of Q3.
( − ) + = +
+
is the diode voltage. Thus,
1
= + −
+ +
If are so chosen that
=
+
Then
1
= .
+
Therefore, the current IE3 is constant and independent of temperature because of the added diode
D. Without D the current would vary with temperature because VBE3 decreases approximately by
2mV/° C. The diode has same temperature dependence and hence the two variations cancel each
other and IE3 does not vary appreciably with temperature. Since the cut in voltage VD of diode
approximately the same value as the base to emitter voltage VBE3 of a transistor, the above
condition cannot be satisfied with one diode. Hence two diodes are used in series for VD. In this
case the common mode gain reduces to zero.

Some times Zener diode may be used in place of diodes and resistance as shown in fig. 2.10.
Zener is available over a wide range of voltages and can have matching temperature coefficient
The voltage at the base of transistor QB is
Fig.2.10
= −
= −
= − −
− (− )
=
−
=
The value of R2 is selected so that I2 = 1.2 IZ (min) where IZ is the minimum current required
causing the Zener diode to conduct in the reverse region, which is to block the rated voltage VZ.
−
=
Where I2 = 1.2 IZ (min)
Current Mirror
The circuit in which the output current is forced to equal the input current is said to be a current
mirror circuit. Thus in a current mirror circuit, the output current is a mirror image of the input
current. The current mirror circuit is shown in fig. 2.11.

Fig.2.11
Once the current I2 is set up, the current IC3 is automatically established to be nearly equal to I2.
The current mirror is a special case of constant current bias and the current mirror bias requires
of constant current bias and therefore can be used to set up currents in differential amplifier
stages. The current mirror bias requires fewer components than constant current bias circuits.
Since Q3 and Q4 are identical transistors the current and voltage are approximately same
=
=
=
Summing currents at node
= +
= +2 = +2
= +2
2
= 1+
Generally is large enough, therefore 2 is small.
≅
+
=
For satisfactory operation two identical transistors are necessary.

Chapter Three
Operational Amplifier
In this chapter you will learn
1. The terminal characteristics of the ideal op amp.
2. How to analyze circuits containing op amps, resistors, and capacitors.
3. How to use op amps to design amplifiers having precise characteristics.
4. How to design more sophisticated op-amp circuits, including summing amplifiers,
instrumentation amplifiers, integrators, and differentiators.
5. Important non-ideal characteristics of op amps and how these limit the performance of
basic op-amp circuits.
6. Application of an operational amplifier
Introduction
An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with high input
impedance and low output impedance. Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide
voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of
instrumentation circuits. An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to achieve
a very high voltage gain.
Figure 3.1 shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one output as would result using a
differential amplifier input stage. Each input results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or
phase) output, depending on whether the signal is applied to the plus (+) or the minus (-) input.
Figure 3.1 Basic op-amp

Single-Ended Input
Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one input with the
other input connected to ground. Figure 3.2 shows the signals connected for this operation. In

Fig. 3.2a, the input is applied to the plus input (with minus input at ground), which results in an
output having the same polarity as the applied input signal. Figure 3.2b shows an input signal
applied to the minus input, the output then being opposite in phase to the applied signal.
Figure 3.2 Single ended operations
Double-Ended (Differential) Input

In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each input. This is being a
double-ended operation. Figure 3.3a shows an input, Vd, applied between the two input terminals
(recall that neither input is at ground), with the resulting amplified output in phase with that
applied between the plus and minus inputs. Figure 3.3b shows the same action resulting when
two separate signals are applied to the inputs, the difference signal being Vi1 - Vi2.
Figure 3.3 Double-ended (differential) operation

Double-Ended Output
While the operation discussed so far had a single output, the op-amp can also be operated with
opposite outputs, as shown in Fig. 3.4. An input applied to either input will result in outputs from
both output terminals, these outputs always being opposite in polarity. Figure 3.5 shows a single-
ended input with a double-ended output. As shown, the signal applied to the plus input results in
two amplified outputs of opposite polarity. Figure 3.6 shows the same operation with a single
output measured between output terminals (not with respect to ground). This difference output
signal is Vo1 - Vo2. The difference output is also referred to as a floating signal since neither
output terminal is the ground (reference) terminal. Notice that the difference output is twice as
large as either Vo1 or Vo2 since they are of opposite polarity and subtracting them results in
twice their amplitude [i.e., 10 V - (-10 V) = 20 V]. Figure 3.7 shows a differential input,
differential output operation. The input is applied between the two input terminals and the output
taken from between the two output terminals. This is fully differential operation.
Figure 3.4 Double-ended output
Figure 3.5 Double-ended output with single-ended input Figure 3.6 Double-ended output

Figure 3.7 Differential-input, differential-output operation
Common-Mode Operation
When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-mode operation results, as
shown in Fig. 3.8. Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified, and since they result in opposite
polarity signals at the output, these signals cancel, resulting in 0 V output. Practically, a small
output signal will result.
Figure 3.8 Common-mode operation
Differential and Common Mode Operation

One of the more important features of a differential circuit connection, as provided in an op-amp,
is the circuit’s ability to greatly amplify signals that are opposite at the two inputs, while only
slightly amplifying signals that are common to both inputs. An op-amp provides an output
component that is due to the amplification of the difference of the signals applied to the plus and
minus inputs and a component due to the signals common to both inputs. Since amplification of
the opposite input signals is much greater than that of the common input signals, the circuit
provides a common mode rejection as described by a numerical value called the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR) discussed in chapter 2.
Differential Inputs

When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference signal is the difference
between the two inputs.
Vd = Vi1 - Vi2
Common Inputs
When both input signals are the same, a common signal element due to the two inputs can be
defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.
Vc = ½ (Vi1+Vi2)
Output Voltage
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out-of phase
components, the resulting output can be expressed as
Vo = AdVd + AcVc
Where Vd _ difference voltage
Vc _ common voltage
Ad _ differential gain of the amplifier
Ac _ common-mode gain of the amplifier
Opposite Polarity Inputs

If opposite polarity inputs applied to an op-amp are ideally opposite signals, Vi1 = - Vi2 = Vs, the
resulting difference voltage is
Vd = Vi1 - Vi2 = Vs - (-Vs) = 2Vs
While the resulting common voltage is
Vc=½ (Vi1 + Vi2) = ½ [Vs + (-Vs)] = 0
So that the resulting output voltage is
Vo = AdVd + AcVc = Ad (2Vs) + 0 = 2 AdVs
This shows that when the inputs are an ideal opposite signal (no common element), the output is
the differential gain times twice the input signal applied to one of the inputs.
Same Polarity Inputs

If the same polarity inputs are applied to an op-amp, Vi1 = Vi2 = Vs, the resulting difference
voltage is

Vd = Vi1 - Vi2 = Vs - Vs = 0
While the resulting common voltage is
Vc=½ (Vi1 + Vi2) = ½ (Vs +Vs) = Vs
So that the resulting output voltage is
Vo = AdVd + AcVc = Ad (0) + AcVS = AcVS
This shows that when the inputs are ideal in-phase signals (no difference signal), the output is the
common-mode gain times the input signal, Vs, which shows that only common-mode operation
occurs.
Ideal Operational Amplifiers
The circuit symbol for the operational amplifier is shown in Figure 3.1. The operational amplifier
is a differential amplifier having both inverting and non inverting input terminals. (We discussed
differential amplifiers in chapter 2) The input signals are denoted as vi1 (t) and vi2 (t) (As usual,
we use lowercase letters to represent general time-varying voltages. Often, we will omit the time
dependence and refer to the voltages simply as vi1 and vi2.
An ideal operational amplifier has the following characteristics:

 Infinite input impedances
 Infinite gain for the differential input signal
 Zero gain for the common-mode input signal
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite bandwidth
An equivalent circuit for the ideal operational amplifier consists simply of a controlled source as
shown in Figure 3.9. The open-loop gain AOL is very large in magnitude. Ideally it is infinite.
Op amps are generally used with feedback networks that return part of the output signal to the
input. Thus, a loop is created in which signals flow through the amplifier to the output and back
through the feedback network to the input. AOL is the gain of the op amp without a feedback
network. That is why we call it the open-loop gain.

We assume that the open-loop gain AOL is constant. Thus, there is no distortion, either linear or
nonlinear, and the output voltage VO has a wave shape identical to that of the differential input
vid = V1 - V2. AOL is actually a function of frequency.
Figure 3.9 Equivalent circuit of the ideal op amp

Power-Supply Connections
For a real op amp to function properly, one or more dc supply voltages must be applied, as
shown in Figure 3.10. Often, however, we do not explicitly show the power supply connections
in circuit diagrams.
Figure 3.10 Op-amp symbol showing the dc power supplies, Vcc and Vee
Op-Amp Basics
An operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high input impedance
(typically a few mega ohms) and low output impedance (less than 100Ω). The basic circuit is
made using a difference amplifier having two inputs (plus and minus) and at least one output.
Figure 3.11 shows a basic op-amp unit.

Figure 3.11 Basic op-amp

As discussed earlier, the plus (+) input produces an output that is in phase with the signal
applied, while an input to the minus (-) input results in an opposite polarity output. The ac
equivalent circuit of the op-amp is shown in Fig. 3.12a. As shown, the input signal applied
between input terminals sees input impedance, Ri, typically very high. The output voltage is
shown to be the amplifier gain times the input signal taken through an output impedance, Ro,
which is typically very low. An ideal op-amp circuit, as shown in Fig. 3.12b, would have infinite
input impedance, zero output impedance, and an infinite voltage gain.
Figure 3.12 Ac equivalent of op-amp circuit: (a) practical; (b) ideal
Basic Op-Amp
The basic circuit connection using an op-amp is shown in Fig. 3.13. The circuit shown provides
operation as a constant-gain multiplier. An input signal, V1, is applied through resistor R1 to the
minus input. The output is then connected back to the same minus input through resistor Rf. The
plus input is connected to ground. Since the signal V1 is essentially applied to the minus input,
the resulting output is opposite in phase to the input signal. Figure 3.14a shows the op-amp
replaced by its ac equivalent circuit. If we use the ideal op-amp equivalent circuit, replacing Ri
by an infinite resistance and Ro by zero resistance, the ac equivalent circuit is that shown in Fig.
3.14b. The circuit is then redrawn, as shown in Fig. 3.14c, from which circuit analysis is carried
out.

Figure 3.13 Basic op-amp connection
Figure 3.14 Operation of op-amp as constant-gain multiplier: (a) op-amp ac equivalent circuit;
(b) ideal op-amp equivalent circuit; (c) redrawn equivalent circuit.
From the redrawn equivalent circuit, and using superposition, we can solve for the voltage V1 in
terms of the components due to each of the sources. For source V1 only (- AvVi set to zero),
For source - AvVi only (V1 set to zero),
The total voltage Vi is then
Which can be solved for Vi as
If Av ≫ 1 and Av R1 ≫ Rf, as is usually true, then

Solving for Vo/Vi, we get
So that
The result, in the above equation, shows that the ratio of overall output to input voltage is
dependent only on the values of resistors R1 and Rf provided that Av is very large.
Unity Gain
If Rf = R1, the gain is
So that, the circuit provides unity voltage gain with 180° phase inversion. If Rf is exactly R1, the
voltage gain is exactly 1.
Constant Magnitude Gain

If Rf is some multiple of R1, the overall amplifier gain is a constant. For example, if Rf = 10R1,
then
and the circuit provides a voltage gain of exactly 10 along with an 180° phase inversion from the
input signal. If we select precise resistor values for Rf and R1, we can obtain a wide range of
gains, the gain being as accurate as the resistors used and is only slightly affected by temperature
and other circuit factors.
Virtual Ground and Summing Point

In Fig. 3.15a is shown an Op amp which employs negative feedback with the help of resistor Rf
which feeds a portion of the output to the input. Since input and feedback currents are
algebraically added at point A, it is called the summing point. The concept of virtual ground
arises from the fact that input voltage Vi at the inverting terminal of the Op amp is forced to such
a small value that, for all practical purposes, it may be assumed to be zero. Hence, point A is

essentially at ground voltage and is referred to as virtual ground. Obviously, it is not the actual
ground, which, as seen from Fig. 3.15a, is situated below.
Fig.3.15a
The output voltage is limited by the supply voltage of, typically, a few volts. As stated before,
voltage gains are very high. If, for example, Vo = - 10 V and Av = 20,000, the input voltage
would then be
A virtual short so that no current goes through the short to ground. Current goes only through
resistors R1 and Rf as shown.
Figure 3.15b Virtual ground in an op-amp

Using the virtual ground concept, we can write equations for the current I as follows:
Which can be solved for Vo /V1:

The virtual ground concept, which depends on Av being very large, allowed a simple solution to
determine the overall voltage gain.
Op-Amp Parameters
Before going into various practical applications using op-amps, we should become familiar with
some of the parameters used to define the operation of the unit. These specifications include both
dc and transient or frequency operating features.
Offset Currents and Voltages

While the op-amp output should be 0 V when the input is 0 V, in actual operation there is some
offset voltage at the output. For example, if one connected 0 V to both op-amp inputs and then
measured 26 mV (dc) at the output, this would represent 26 mV of unwanted voltage generated
by the circuit and not by the input signal. Since the user may connect the amplifier circuit for
various gain and polarity operations, however, the manufacturer specifies an input offset voltage
for the op-amp. The output offset voltage is then determined by the input offset voltage and the
gain of the amplifier, as connected by the user. The output offset voltage can be shown to be
affected by two separate circuit conditions. These are: (1) an input offset voltage, VIO, and (2) an
offset current due to the difference in currents resulting at the plus (+) and minus (-) inputs.
Input Offset Voltage, VIO

The manufacturer’s specification sheet provides a value of VIO for the op-amp. To determine the
effect of this input voltage on the output, consider the connection shown in Fig. 3.16. Using Vo =
AVi, we can write
Solving for Vo, we get
From which we can write

The above equation shows how the output offset voltage results from a specified input offset
voltage for a typical amplifier connection of the op-amp.
Figure 3.16 Operation showing effect of input offset voltage, VIO

Example 3.1
Calculate the output offset voltage of the circuit in Fig. 3.17. The op-amp spec lists VIO = 1.2
mV.
Fig 3.17
Solution
Output Offset Voltage Due To Input Offset Current, IIO
An output offset voltage will also result due to any difference in dc bias currents at both inputs.
Since the two input transistors are never exactly matched, each will operate at a slightly different
current. For a typical op-amp connection, shown in Fig. 3.18, an output offset voltage can be
determined as follows. Replacing the bias currents through the input resistors by the voltage drop

as shown in Fig. 3.19, we can determine the expression for the resulting output voltage. Using
superposition, the output voltage due to input bias current I +IB, denoted by V +o, is
While the output voltage due to only , denoted by , is
Figure 3.18 Op-amp connection showing input bias currents Figure 3.19 Redrawn circuit of Fig. 3.18
For a total output offset voltage of
Since the main consideration is the difference between the input bias currents rather than each
value, we define the offset current IIO by
Since the compensating resistance RC is usually approximately equal to the value of R1, using
RC = R1 in the total offset voltage equation, we can write
Resulting in
Example 3.2

Calculate the offset voltage for the circuit of Fig. 3.17 for op-amp specification listing IIO = 100
nA.
Solution
Total Offset due to VIO and IIO

Since the op-amp output may have an output offset voltage due to both factors covered above,
the total output offset voltage can be expressed as
[Vo(offset)] = [Vo(offset due to VIO)] + [Vo(offset due to IIO)]
The absolute magnitude is used to accommodate the fact that the offset polarity may be either
positive or negative.
Example 3.3
Calculate the total offset voltage for the circuit of Fig. 3.20 for an op-amp with specified values
of input offset voltage, VIO = 4 mV and input offset current IIO =150 nA.
Figure 3.20 op amp circuit for example 3.3

Solution
The offset due to VIO is
Resulting in a total offset

Input Bias Current, IIB

A parameter related to IIO and the separate input bias currents and is the average bias
current defined as
One could determine the separate input bias currents using the specified values IIO and IIB. It can
be shown that for >
Example 3.4
Calculate the input bias currents at each input of an op-amp having specified values of IIO = 5
nA and IIB = 30 nA.
Solution
Op-Amp Frequency Parameters

An op-amp is designed to be a high-gain, wide-bandwidth amplifier. This operation tends to be
unstable (oscillate) due to positive feedback. To ensure stable operation, op-amps are built with
internal compensation circuitry, which also causes the very high open-loop gain to diminish with
increasing frequency. This gain reduction is referred to as roll-off. In most op-amps, roll-off
occurs at a rate of 20 dB per decade.

Gain Bandwidth
Because of the internal compensation circuitry included in an op-amp, the voltage gain drops off
as frequency increases. Op-amp specifications provide a description of the gain versus
bandwidth. Figure 3.21 provides a plot of gain versus frequency for a typical op-amp. At low
frequency down to dc operation the gain is that value listed by the manufacturer’s specification
AVD (voltage differential gain) and is typically a very large value. As the frequency of the input
signal increases the open-loop gain drops off until it finally reaches the value of 1 (unity). The
frequency at this gain value is specified by the manufacturer as the unity-gain bandwidth, B1.
While this value is a frequency (see Fig. 3.21) at which the gain becomes 1, it can be considered
a bandwidth, and since the frequency band from 0 Hz to the unity-gain frequency is also a
bandwidth. One could therefore refer to the point at which the gain reduces to 1 as the unity-gain
frequency (f1) or unity-gain bandwidth (B1).
Figure 3.21 Gain versus frequency plot
Another frequency of interest is that shown in Fig. 3.21, at which the gain drops by 3 dB (or to
0.707 the dc gain, AVD), is the cutoff frequency of the op-amp, fC. In fact, the unity-gain
frequency and cutoff frequency are related by
f1 = AVD fC
Example 3.5
Determine the cutoff frequency of an op-amp having specified values B1 = 1 MHz and AVD =
200 V/mV.

Solution
Since f1 = B1 = 1 MHz, to calculate the cutoff frequency
Slew Rate, SR
Another parameter reflecting the op-amp’s ability to handling varying signals is slew rate,
defined as
Slew rate = maximum rate at which amplifier output can change in volts per microsecond (V/µs)
with t in µsec
Example 3.6
For an op-amp having a slew rate of SR = 2 V/µs, what is the maximum closed-loop voltage gain
that can be used when the input signal varies by 0.5 V in 10 µs?
Solution
Since Vo = ACLVi, we can use
From which we get
Any closed-loop voltage gain of magnitude greater than 40 would drive the output at a rate
greater than the slew rate allows, so the maximum closed-loop gain is 40.
Maximum Signal Frequency

The maximum frequency that an op-amp may operate at depends on both the bandwidth (BW)
and slew rate (SR) parameters of the op-amp. For a sinusoidal signal of general form
Vo = K sin (2 f t)
The maximum voltage rate of change can be shown to be

Maximum signal rate of change = 2 fK V/s

To prevent distortion at the output, the rate of change must also be less than the slew rate, that is,
2 fK ≤ SR
K ≤ SR
So that
Example 3.7
For the signal and circuit of Fig. 3.22, determine the maximum frequency that may be used. Op-
amp slew rate is SR = 0.5 V/µs, V1 = 0.02 V and ω = 300x103 rad/sec.
Fig 3.22
Solution
For a gain of magnitude
The output voltage provides
Since the signal’s frequency, ω = 300 x103 rad/s, is less than the maximum value determined
above, no output distortion will result.
Inverting and non-inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier

The most widely used constant-gain amplifier circuit is the inverting amplifier, as shown in Fig.
3.23. The output is obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by the input
resistor (R1) and feedback resistor (Rf). This output also being inverted from the input. We can
write
Figure 3.23 Inverting constant-gain multiplier
Example 3.1
If the circuit of Fig. 3.23 has R1 = 100 kΩ and Rf = 500 kΩ, what output voltage results for an
input of V1 = 2 V?
Solution
Non-inverting Amplifier
The connection of Fig. 3.24a shows an op-amp circuit that works as a non-inverting amplifier or
constant-gain multiplier. It should be noted that the inverting amplifier connection is more
widely used because it has better frequency stability. To determine the voltage gain of the circuit,
we can use the equivalent representation shown in Fig. 3.24b. Note that the voltage across R1 is
V1 since Vi ≈ 0 V. This must be equal to the output voltage, through a voltage divider of R1 and
Rf, so that
This result in

Figure 3.24 Non-inverting constant gain multiplier

Example 3.2
Calculate the output voltage of a non-inverting amplifier (as in Fig. 3.23) for values of V1 = 2 V,
Rf = 500 kΩ, and R1 = 100 kΩ.
Solution
Unity Follower
The unity-follower circuit, as shown in Fig. 3.25a, provides a gain of unity (1) with no polarity
or phase reversal. From the equivalent circuit (see Fig. 3.25b) it is clear that
Vo = V1
and that the output is the same polarity and magnitude as the input. The circuit operates like an
emitter or source follower circuit except that the gain is exactly unity.

Figure 3.25 (a) Unity follower; (b) virtual-ground equivalent circuit
OP - Amp applications
Constant Gain Multiplier
One of the most common op-amp circuits is the inverting constant-gain multiplier, which
provides a precise gain or amplification. Figure 3.26 shows a standard circuit connection with the
resulting gain being given by
=−
Figure 3.26 Fixed-gain amplifier
Example 3.3
Determine the output voltage for the circuit of Fig. 3.27 with a sinusoidal input of 2.5 mV.
Figure 3.27 Circuit for Example 3.3
Solution
The circuit of Fig. 3.27 uses a 741 op-amp to provide a constant or fixed gain, so the gain is

The output voltage is then
A non - inverting constant-gain multiplier is provided by the circuit of Fig. 3.28, with the gain
given by
Figure 3.28 Non - inverting fixed-gain amplifier

Example 3.4
Calculate the output voltage from the circuit of Fig. 3.29 for an input of 120 µV.

Solution
The gain of the op-amp circuit is calculated to be
The output voltage is then

Multiple-Stage Gains
When a number of stages are connected in series, the overall gain is the product of the individual
stage gains. Figure 3.30 shows a connection of three stages. The first stage is connected to
provide non - inverting gain. The next two stages provide an inverting gain. The overall circuit
gain is then non - inverting and calculated by
Where
Figure 3.30 Constant-gain connection with multiple stages
Example 3.5
Calculate the output voltage using the circuit of Fig. 3.30 for resistor components of value Rf =
470 kΩ, R1 = 4.3 kΩ, R2 = 33 kΩ, and R3 = 33 kΩ for an input of 80 µV.
Solution
The amplifier gain is calculated to be

So that
Example 3.6
Show the connection of an LM124 quad op-amp as a three-stage amplifier with gains of +10, -
18, and - 27. Use a 270 kΩ feedback resistor for all three circuits. What output voltage will result
for an input of 150 µV?
Solution
For the gain of +10:
For the gain of - 18:
For the gain of - 27:
The circuit showing the pin connections and all components used is in Fig. 3.31. For an input of
V1 = 150 µV, the output voltage will be

Figure 3.31 Circuit for Example 3.6 (using LM124)
Summing amplifier
Another popular use of an op-amp is as a summing amplifier. Figure 3.32 shows the connection
with the output being the sum of the three inputs, each multiplied by a different gain. The output
voltage is
Figure 3.32 Summing amplifier

Example 3.7
Calculate the output voltage for the circuit of Fig. 3.33. The inputs are V1 = 50 mV sin (1000t)
and V2 = 10 mV sin (3000t)


Solution
The output voltage is
Voltage Subtraction
Two signals can be subtracted, one from the other, in a number of ways. Figure 3.34 shows two
op-amp stages used to provide subtraction of input signals. The resulting output is given by
Figure 3.34 Circuit to subtract two signals

Example 3.8
Determine the output for the circuit of Fig. 3.34 with components Rf = 1 MΩ, R1 = 100 kΩ, R2 =
50 kΩ, and R3 = 500 kΩ.
Solution
The output voltage is calculated to be
The output is seen to be the difference of V2 and V1 multiplied by a gain factor of – 20.
Another connection to provide subtraction of two signals is shown in Fig. 3.35. This connection
uses only one op-amp stage to provide subtracting two input signals. Using superposition the
output can be shown to be
Figure 3.35 Subtraction circuit
Integrator
So far, the input and feedback components have been resistors. If the feedback component used
is a capacitor, as shown in Fig. 3.36a, the resulting connection is called an integrator. The
virtual-ground equivalent circuit (Fig. 3.36b) shows that an expression for the voltage between
input and output can be derived in terms of the current I. The virtual ground is considered at the
junction of R and XC to the ground point (since Vi ≈ 0 V) but no current goes into ground at that
point. The capacitive reactance can be expressed as

Figure 3.36 Integrator

Where s = jω is in the Laplace notation.* Solving for Vo/V1 yields
The expression above can be rewritten in the time domain as
The function of an integrator is to provide an output voltage which is proportional to the integral
of the input voltage.
Figure 3.37
A simple example of integration is shown in Fig. 3.37 where input is dc level and its integral is a
linearly-increasing ramp output. The actual integration circuit is shown in Fig. 3.36.

Summing integrator
Fig. 3.38 (a) shows a summing integrator as used in an analog computer. It shows all the three
resistors and the capacitor. The analog computer representation of Fig. 3.38 (b) indicates only the
scale factor for each input. The output voltage is calculated as follows
Figure 3.38
Example 3.9
A 5-mV, 1-kHz sinusoidal signal is applied to the input of an Op-amp integrator of Fig. 3.39 for
which R = 100 K and C = 1 µF. Find the output voltage. V1 = 5 sin 2 πft = 5 sin 2000 π t
Figure 3.39 Integrator circuit for Example 3.9
Solution
Scale factor = − = = −10

The equation for the sinusoidal voltage is

V1 = 5 sin 2 πft = 5 sin 2000 π t
Obviously, it has been assumed that at t = 0, V1 = 0
Differentiator
Its function is to provide an output voltage which is proportional to the rate of the change of the
input voltage. It is an inverse mathematical operation to that of an integrator. As shown in Fig.
3.40, when we feed a differentiator with linearly-increasing ramp input, we get a constant dc
output.
Figure 3.40
Differentiator circuit can be obtained by interchanging the resistor and capacitor of the integrator
circuit.
Figure 3.41 Op – amp differentiator circuit

Let i = rate of change of charge =
Now,
=
Therefore,
= ( )=
Taking point A as virtual ground
= − = − = − ∗
Output voltage is proportional to the derivate of the input voltage and the constant of
proportionality (i.e., scale factor - RC).
Example 3.10
The input to the differentiator circuit of Fig. 3.41 is a sinusoidal voltage of peak value of 5 mV
and frequency 1 kHz. Find out the output if R = 1000 KΩ and C = 1 µF.
Solution
The equation of the input voltage is
V1 = 5 sin 2 π × 1000 t = 5 sin 2000 πt mV
= = 10 10 = 0.1
= 0.1 (5 sin 2000 ) = (0.5 2000 ) cos 2000 = 1000 2000
As seen, output is a co sinusoidal voltage of frequency 1 kHz and peak value 1000 π mV.
Comparator
It is a circuit which compares two signals or voltage levels. The circuit is shown in Fig. 3.42 and
(like that of the unity follower) is the simplest because it needs no additional external
components. If V1 and V2 are equal, then V0 should ideally be zero. Even if V1 differs from V2

by a very small amount, V0 is large because of amplifier’s high gain. Hence, circuit of Fig. 3.42
can detect very small changes which is another way of saying that it compares two signals.
Figure 3.42 Op – amp comparator

Active Filters
A popular application uses op-amps to build active filter circuits. A filter circuit can be
constructed using passive components: resistors and capacitors. An active filter additionally uses
an amplifier to provide voltage amplification and signal isolation or buffering. A filter that
provides a constant output from dc up to upper cutoff frequency fOH and then passes no signal
above that frequency is called an ideal low-pass filter. The ideal response of a low-pass filter is
shown in Fig. 3.43a. A filter that provides or passes signals above lower cutoff frequency fOL is a
high-pass filter, as indicated in Fig. 3.43b. When the filter circuit passes signals between the
lower and upper cutoff frequency, it is called a band pass filter, as indicated in Fig.3.43c.
Figure 3.43 Ideal filter response: (a) low-pass; (b) high-pass; (c) band pass
Low-Pass Filter
A first-order, low-pass filter using a single resistor and capacitor as in Fig. 3.44a has a practical
slope of - 20 dB per decade, as shown in Fig. 3.44b (rather than the ideal response of Fig. 3.43a).
The voltage gain below the cutoff frequency is constant at

A cutoff frequency
Figure 3.44 First-order low-pass active filter
Example 3.11
Calculate the cutoff frequency of a first-order low-pass filter for R1 = 1.2 kΩ and C1 = 0.02 µF.
Solution
High-Pass Active Filter

First- and second-order high-pass active filters can be built as shown in Fig. 3.45. The amplifier
gain and the amplifier lower cutoff frequency are
With a second-order filter R1 = R2, and C1 = C2 results in the same cutoff frequency.

Figure 3.45 High-pass filter: (a) first order; (b) second order; (c) response plot
Example 3.12
Calculate the cutoff frequency of a second-order high-pass filter as in Fig. 3.45b for R1 = R2 =
2.1 kΩ, C1 = C2 = 0.05 µF, and Ro1 = 10 kΩ, Rof = 50 kΩ.
Solution
The cutoff frequency is
Band pass Filter

Figure 3.46 shows a band pass filter using two stages, the first is a high-pass filter and the second
is a low-pass filter, the combined operation of the two is being the desired band pass response.

Figure 3.46 Band pass active filter

Example 3.13
Calculate the cutoff frequencies of the band pass filter circuit of Fig. 3.46 with R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ,
C1 = 0.1 µF, and C2 = 0.002 µF.
Solution

Chapter Four
Wave shaping Circuits
Introduction
In the design of electronic systems, the need frequently arises for signals having prescribed
standard waveforms, for example, sinusoidal, square, triangular, or pulse. Systems in which
standard signals are required include computer and control systems where clock pulses are
needed for, among other things, timing; communication systems where signals of a variety of
waveforms are utilized as information carriers; and test and measurement systems where signals,
again of a variety of waveforms, are employed for testing and characterizing electronic devices
and circuits.

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A.A Science and Technology University School of Info.

Science and Technology

(i) Positive feedback

(ii) Negative feedback

Principle of Feedback Amplifiers

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 1

= is called positive feedback

= is called negative feedback

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 2

(a) Negative Feedback

Obviously, A´ < A because | 1 + βA | > 1.

(b) Positive Feedback

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 3

Advantages of Negative Feedback

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 4

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 5

Feedback over Several Stages

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 6

(ii) When open-loop gain changes by 10%, then A2 = 50 + 0.1 × 50 = 55

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 7

(a) Af = A/(1 + βA) = 63/(1 + 6.3) = 6.63 or 18.72 dB

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 8

f2 ´ = f0 (1 + βA) = 20(1 + 0.02 × 200) = 100 Hz

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 9

Forms of Negative Feedback

(a) Voltage-series Feedback

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 10

Characteristics Type of Feedback

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 11

Shunt-derived Series-fed Voltage Feedback

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 12

Current-series Feedback Amplifier

It can be proved that

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 13

Voltage-shunt Negative Feedback Amplifier

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 14

Current-shunt Negative Feedback Amplifier

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 15

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 16

The four differential amplifier configurations are following:

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 17

Dual Input, Balanced Output Differential Amplifier

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 18

Applying KVL to the base emitter loop of the transistor Q1

Generally, ≪ 2 because is the internal resistance of input signal.

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 19

= 10 + 0.715 − (2.2 )(0.988 )

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 20

Dual Input, Balanced Output Difference Amplifier

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 21

Applying KVL in two loops 1 & 2

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 22

Differential Input Resistance:

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 23

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 24

The ac emitter resistance

Inverting & Non - inverting Inputs

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 25

Common mode Gain and common Mode rejection ratio

Dept. Electrical & Electronics Eng Applied Electronics II (EEEG – 2202) 26