Digestive System ii.

Anus - terminal opening of the digestive system

 is made up of the digestive tract and other organs Mechanisms of digestion and absorption:
that help the body break down and absorb food. 
A. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth but
 help convert large food molecules into simpler
could not continue in the stomach due to the acidic pH
molecules (monomers)
that destroys the amylase.
Main Stages of Food Processing
B. Proteins are digested in the stomach and small
A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; mechanical intestine. Resulting amino acids are absorbed in the
breakdown of food into smaller pieces small intestine

B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles, then C. Fat digestion occurs entirely in the small intestine.
into nutrient molecules small enough to be chemically Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter epithelial cells
digested by enzymes from the intestinal lumen

C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid D. Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by
across the tube wall and into the body fluids diffusion or active transport.

D. Elimination – the expulsion of undigested and How nutrients are delivered into cells:
unabsorbed materials from the end of the gut.
A. Substances pass through the brush border cells that
Organs Involved in food processing in the human line the free surface of each villus by active transport,
digestive system: osmosis, and diffusion across the lipid bilayer of plasma
membranes.
A. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
How is digestion regulated:
I. Oral Cavity – it is where food is initially chewed into
shreds by the teeth and mixed with saliva by the A. The digestive system of animals is regulated in part by
tongue. Saliva is secreted into the mouth by three other organ systems, especially the nervous and
pairs of salivary glands located above the upper jaw endocrine systems.
and below the lower jaw.
i. B. The nervous system exerts control on the
II. Pharynx –the region at the back of the throat that
digestive system in two ways:
serves as the entrance to the esophagus. To block
ii. regulation of muscular and glandular activity by
breathing as food leaves the pharynx
the local nerves in the alimentary canal; and
III. Esophagus – connects the pharynx with the
iii. long-distance regulation by the brain.
stomach.
C. Hormones regulate the rate of digestion.
B. The Stomach
Evaluation:
I. The gastric juice is a combination of HCl and
acid-stable proteases. 1. The pancreas connects to which part of the
alimentary canal?
C. Small Intestines
A. Esophagus
II. The small intestine is approximately 6 meters
long and is composed of three regions: the B. Stomach
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
C. Small intestine
D. The Accessory Digestive Organs
D. Cecum
I. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats
II. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver E. Large intestine
III. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down 2. Which of the following statements regarding the
all major food molecules vertebrate stomach is not correct?
E. The Large Intestine or Colon A. Its cells secrete the protease enzyme pepsin.
I. The large intestine shorter than the small B. It is a saclike organ that evolved to store food.
intestine, about 1 meter.It concentrates and
stores undigested matter by absorbing mineral C. Its cells secrete hydrochloric acid.
ions and water. D. It is the initial site of protein digestion.
F. The Rectum and the Anus E. Absorption of many nutrients occurs there.
i. The rectum is a short extension of the large 3. Absorption in the small intestine is increased by :
intestine and is the final segment of the
digestive tract.
 A. The many villi that are present on the inner Caloric Nutrients
surface of the small intestine.
Carbohydrates: Nutrients that are the main source of
B. The brush border formed by microvilli on the energy for the body
cells of the villi.
Protein: Nutrients that are the main source of building
C. The presence of numerous transporter blocks for the body
proteins on the epithelial cells.
Fats/Lipids: Used for cellular components, such as cell
D. All of the above. membranes, also used for storage of energy.

E. None of the above. Fats/Lipids

4. Which of the following is a function of the large Saturated or Unsaturated?

intestine?
 solids at room temp = saturated
A. It participates in cellulose digestion by
(butter and animal fat)
microbes that exist in the cecum of herbivores.
 liquids at room temp = unsaturated
B. It stores and concentrates fecal material.
(vegetable oils)
C. Its cells absorb salts and water that remain in
Saturated fats are the “bad” fats, and unsaturated are
chyme after it leaves the small intestine.
the “good” fats
D. Its cells absorb certain vitamins.
Proteins
E. All of the above.
 8 amino acids the body cannot make are called
5. Which of the following is correct? “essential amino acids”

A. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth Must be obtained from food that you eat meat, fish,
and resumes in the small intestine. eggs and milk, legumes

B. Protein digestion occurs only in the small Trytophan, Lysine, Methionine, Valine, Leucine,
intestine. Isoleucine, Threonine, and Phenylalanine

C. Fat digestion occurs in the stomach and small Vitamins

intestine.
Organic molecules that help regulate body processes
D. Both water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins (work with enzymes)
are absorbed by diffusion or active transport.
Most vitamins obtained from food
E. All of the above.
Bacteria in digestive tract synthesize vitamin K
Calories
Skin synthesizes vitamin D when exposed to sunlight
Average teen needs
2 types of vitamins:
 2200 Calories/day for females
1. fat-soluble
 2800 Calories/day for males
 A, D, E and K can be stored in fatty tissues of
Nutrients
body
 Water  excessive amounts can be toxic
 Carbohydrates
2. water-soluble
 Fats
 Proteins  C and B vitamins dissolve in water and can’t be
 Vitamins stored
 Minerals
Minerals
Water is most important nutrient
Inorganic nutrients that the body needs in small
Makes up bulk of blood, lymph and other bodily amounts, also called micronutrients
fluids
ex: calcium  major component of bones and teeth
Drink at least 1-2 liters of water each day (6-8 cups)
iron  makes hemoglobin magnesium, sodium and
Not enough = dehydration  causes problems in potassium
circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems
Process of Digestion Pancreas:

Digestive System:  Produces hormones that regulate blood sugar

levels
Includes:
 Produces enzymes that break down carbs,
 Mouth proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
 Pharynx  Produces sodium bicarbonate (base which
 Esophagus neutralizes stomach acid) so enzymes can be
 Stomach effective
 Small intestine
Liver
 Large intestine
 Accessory structures: salivary glands, pancreas,  Located above and to the right of the stomach
liver add secretions  Produces bile (fluid loaded with lipids and salts)
 Bile acts as a detergent, dissolving droplets of fats
Mouth
from food
Teeth  Bile is stored in gallbladder

 Mechanical work of digestion by cutting, Small Intestine

tearing, and crushing
Duodenum-First part of the small intestine where
Saliva – salivary glands chemical digestion begins to take place

 Helps to moisten food and make it easier to Jejunum and ileum are remaining parts of small
chew intestine (average about 6 meters long)

Esophagus Villi are fingerlike projections covering surface of small

intestine
 Long tube of smooth muscle that connects the
pharynx with the stomach  Absorption of nutrients occurs here
 Chewed clump of food = bolus
Small Intestine Large Intestine
 Epiglottis closes over trachea to keep food out
By time it leaves small intestine, food is basically
 Esophagus carries food to stomach
nutrient-free water, cellulose and other undigestible
 Contractions of smooth muscles (peristalsis) substances

i. Peristalsis-Squeeze food thru esophagus into Appendix: in humans does little to promote digestion,
stomach but in other mammals it stores cellulose and other
ii. Reverse peristalsis = vomiting materials
iii. Cardiac sphincter (thick ring of muscle) closes
Large Intestine
and prevents stomach contents from moving
back up esophagus  Also known as the colon
 Primary function is to remove water from the
Stomach
undigested material
 Large sac of smooth muscle  Water is quickly absorbed across the wall of the
large intestine
Chemical digestion  Concentrated waste material that remains passes
 Gastric glands secrete substances through the rectum and is eliminated from the body
 Mucus lubricates and protects stomach wall

Mechanical digestion (smooth muscle contractions) Digestive System Disorders

 Mixture called chyme Peptic ulcer  powerful acids in stomach damage
 After an hour or two, pyloric valve opens and stomach wall
chyme begins to flow into small intestine
 Doctors thought that ulcers were caused by too
Small Intestine much acid, but scientists have discovered bacteria
Enters the duodenum (first of 3 parts of small intestine) Helicobacter pylori is cause (now cure rates are as
high as 90%)
 Almost all digestive enzymes enter the intestine
 Most of chemical digestion and absorption of Diarrhea  not enough water is absorbed
nutrients occurs in the small intestine Constipation  too much water is absorbed
 Mixes with fluids and enzymes from pancreas
and liver  Eat plenty of fiber and drink plenty of water!
Excretory System Function Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of
energy contained in food.
 Function of the excretory system is to maintain
homeostasis in the body by eliminating  It specifically refers to the amount of heat energy
metabolic (cellular) wastes required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of
water by 1˚C (1.8˚F).
Organs of Excretion
 The greater the number of Calories in a quantity of
 skin  excretes water and salts, small amount food, the greater energy it contains (Johnson and
of urea (sweat) Raven, 1996).
 lungs  excretes carbon dioxide
Nutritional Requirements of Animals
 liver  converts nitrogenous wastes from
digestion into urea Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the
 kidneys  excretes urea and other metabolic cells in the body.
wastes
These are usually obtained from grains, cereals, breads,
Kidneys fruits, and vegetables.

 The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, each about On average, carbohydrates contains 4 Calories per gram.
the size of a fist.
Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the
 They are located near the middle of the back, just
body mainly uses these as building materials for cell
below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine.
structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles,
 Kidneys play important role in maintaining
and bones.
homeostasis
Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid
-remove waste products from the blood
hormones, and other cellular structures; also used to
-maintain blood pH insulate nervous tissue, and serve as an energy source.

-regulate the water content of the blood Fats also contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are
(regulating blood volume) important for good health.

How Do the Kidneys Work? Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried
foods, meat, and processed snack foods.
 Remove excess water from the blood
 Remove urea from the blood They contain a higher amount of energy per gram than
 Urea is a form of ammonia, which is produced carbohydrates or proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.
by your cells during cellular metabolism
Essential Nutrients
Kidney Structure
These include substances that animals can only get from
Each kidney is made of many smaller units called the foods they eat because they could not be
nephrons synthesized inside the body.

Nephron Each nephron has its own blood supply These include:
(arteriole, venule, and capillaries)
1. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of
Each nephron releases fluids to collecting duct which proteins and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, eight
leads to ureter could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan,
threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine,
Parts of the Excretory System
isoleucine and valine.
Ureter- tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the
2. Essential fatty acids – used for making special
urinary bladder
membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in humans.
Urethra- tube that carries urine from the bladder and
3. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small
releases it from the body
amounts for normal metabolism; examples include fat-
Urinary Bladder- saclike organ which stores urine before soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins
it is excreted B1, B2, B3, B12, C.

Urine Formation 4. Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients

needed by the body in minute amounts; these form part
 In each nephron, urea and water are filtered out of of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples
the blood, and some water is reabsorbed. include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese,
 The remaining material is conducted to the urinary selenium.
bladder through the ureters, where it becomes
urine. Food Uptake in Cells
I. phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big 1. Phenomena of atmospheric nature that cause loss of
particles, eg. Pseudopod formation in Amoeba. life and property

II. pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell A. Geological hazard C. Hydrometeorological Hazard
using small vesicles derived from the plasma
B. Fire hazard D. Volcanic Hazards
membrane.
2. The following are examples of Hydrometeorological
III. receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on
hazards?
membrane receptor recognition of specific solutes
which are then taken up by the cell via receptor-coated A. Earthquake C. Tsunami
pits
B. El Niño D. Wildfire
Feeding Mechanisms
3. What do you call the center of the typhoon?
I. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their
food source. Examples: earthworms that feed through A. Crest C. Midgard
the soil where they live in; caterpillars that eat through B. Eye D. Turbulence
the leaves where they live on.
4. It occurs when water flows to the land faster before it
II. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which absorbs
draw in water and strain small organisms and food
particles present in the medium. A. El Niño C. Typhoon

Examples: whales and coelenterates B. Flood D. Storm surge

III. Fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from 5. A transient type of weather disturbance produced by
a living host. Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, cumulonimbus clouds, usually with lightning, thunder
aphids and intense rainfall

IV. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and A. Flash flood C. Typhoon
have adaptations like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws, B. La Niña D. Thunderstorm
pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it
to pieces. Examples: snakes, cats, man

Digestive Compartments in Animals

I. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse

with lysosomes that contain hydrolytic enzymes.

Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium

II. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system

– composed of a single opening through which food is
taken in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a saclike
body cavity.

III. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube

with an opening at one end for taking in food (mouth)
and an opening at the other end where unabsorbed
waste materials are eliminated (anus). In between the
mouth and anus, are specialized organs that carry out
transport, processing, and absorption of digested
nutrients.

Accessory Organs for Digestion in a Complete Digestive

System

I. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats

II. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver

III. pancreas – secretes enzymes that breakdown all

major food molecules; secretes buffers against HCl from
the stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of
glucose metabolism.

Hydrometeorological Hazard
Hydrometeorological hazard 1. Typhoon is approaching
2. Strong winds
 Process or phenomenon of atmospheric,
3. PAG-ASA storm surge warning signals
hydrological) or oceanographic nature that may
El Niño
cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts,
1. Extended dry season
property damage, loss of livelihoods and services,
2. Delayed rainy season
social and economic disruption, or environmental
3. Weak monsoon activity
damage.
4. Fewer tropical cyclones
There are different type of hydrometeorological La Niña:
hazards 1. Normal to above rainfall condition
2. Increase in a tropical storm.
Typhoon - A severe weather disturbance with a strong
wind and heavy rainfalls which form in a low-pressure The classification of tropical cyclones according to the
area. strength of the associated winds as adopted by
Thunderstorm- A transient type of weather disturbance PAGASA (as of 01 May 2015) are as follows:
produced by cumulonimbus clouds, usually with  TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD) - a tropical cyclone
lightning, thunder and intense rainfall with maximum sustained winds of up to 61 kph.
Flash flood- A flood characterize by the great volume of  TROPICAL STORM (TS) - a tropical cyclone with
water caused by heavy rainfall in a short period. It maximum wind speed of 62 to 88 kph.
occurs within minutes or hours.  SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS) - a tropical cyclone
with maximum wind speed of 89 to 117 kph.
Flood- A great flowing of water on the land that is not  TYPHOON (TY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum
usually submerged. A flood occurs when water flows to wind speed of 118 to 220 kph.
the land faster than it absorbs.  SUPER TYPHOON (STY), a tropical cyclone with
Storm surge- a Localized unusual increase of seawater maximum wind speed exceeding 220 kph.
beyond astronomical tide due to intense wind and Across
tropical cyclone.
3. A Localized unusual increase of seawater beyond
El Niño- the unusual warming of sea surface astronomical tide due to intense wind and tropical
temperature occurs in the central and eastern equator cyclone
of pacific.
 typhoon
This phenomena usually last up to 9 months to 2 yrs. 5. The unusual warming of sea surface temperature
The word El Niño is a Spanish word meaning “child/the occurs in the central and eastern equator of pacific
boy”.  El Nino
La Niña- the Spanish word for “the girl” the opposite of 6. A transient type of weather disturbance produced by
El Niño the unusual cooling of the sea surface in the cumulonimbus clouds
central and eastern pacific it may last 1-3 yrs.
 Thunderstorm
Impending Signs of Hydro-Meteorological Hazards
7. The Spanish word for “the girl” the opposite of El
Typhoon Niño
1. Strong winds
2. Dark clouds  La Nina
3. Blowing debris Down
4. Barometers start to drop
5. Cirrus clouds start to appear 1. A great flowing of water on the land that is not
Thunderstorm usually submerged
1. Cumulus/Shelf/Wall clouds formed
 flood
2. Lightning and thunder
3. Wind blowing 2. A flood characterize by the great volume of water
4. Temperature drop caused by heavy rainfall in a short period

 flashflood
Flood/Flash flood
4. A severe weather disturbance with a strong wind and
1. Intense rainfall
heavy rainfalls which form in a low-pressure area
2. Dam failure
3. Slow-moving Tropical Storm  Storm surge
4. Check local weather channel
Storm surge 1. What is the meaning of the word La Niña?
A. The Boy C. The Girl with the storm track; the intensity, size, and speed
of the storm; and the local bathymetry.
B. the Father D. The Mother
 Bathymetry is the study of underwater depth of
2. It is the unusual warming of sea surface temperature lake or ocean floors.
occurs in the central and eastern equator of pacific
Tropical cyclone
A. El Niño C. Thunderstorm
 It is a rotating, organized system of clouds and
B. Flood D. Storm surge thunderstorms that originates over the tropical
waters.
3. A Localized unusual increase of seawater beyond
astronomical tide due to intense wind and tropical  Tropical cyclones rotate in a counterclockwise
cyclone. direction in the northern hemisphere (conversely,
clockwise in the southern hemisphere).
A. El Niño C. La Niña
 The term tropical cyclone encompasses tropical
B. Flash Flood D. Storm surge depressions, tropical storms, typhoons and
4. The following are impending signs of Typhoon except hurricanes.

Barometer start to drop C. Strong Wind Hydrometeorological Hazard Maps

B. Dark clouds D. Temperature drop 1. These are processes that involve the interaction of
the atmosphere, bodies of water, and land which poses
5. What is the meaning of the word El Nino? a threat to lives & human property.
A. The Boy C. The Man  Hydrometeorological Hazards
B. The Brother D. The Woman 2. A prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading
 The term typhoon is the regional name in the to a shortage of water.
northwest Pacific for a severe (or mature) tropical  Droughts
cyclone, whereas hurricane is the regional term in
the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic. 3. The sliding down of a mass of the Earth or rock from a
Elsewhere this is called a tropical cyclone, severe mountain or a cliff.
tropical cyclone, or severe cyclonic storm.  Landslides
 A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical
storm or a lightning storm, is a storm characterized 4. A tropical storm in the region of the Indian or
by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect Western Pacific Oceans.
on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder. 
 Typhoons
 Relatively weak thunderstorms are sometimes
called thundershowers 5. An overflowing of a large amount of water beyond its
 Flood: An overflow of water onto normally dry land. normal confines, especially over what is normally dry.
The inundation of a normally dry area caused by
 Flood
rising water in an existing waterway, such as a river,
stream, or drainage ditch. Ponding of water at or Hazard Maps
near the point where the rain fell. Flooding is a
longer-term event than flash flooding: it may last  are developed to enlighten individuals about the
days or weeks. areas that are vulnerable to a particular hazard and
 Flash flood: A flood caused by heavy or excessive can be more affected by a disaster.
rainfall in a short period of time, generally less than  are particularly made for Geological hazards (e.g.,
6 hours. Flash floods are usually characterized by earthquakes, volcanic eruption), and Climate &
raging torrents after heavy rains that rip through Weather-related hazards or Meteorological hazards
river beds, urban streets, or mountain canyons (e.g. typhoon, flood)
sweeping everything before them. They can occur 3 main characteristics that a hazard map should have
within minutes or a few hours of excessive rainfall.
 Storm surge is the abnormal rise in seawater level 1.) Location, an example is if what a typhoon’s path and
during a storm, measured as the height of the water where it will landfall;
above the normal predicted astronomical tide. The 2.) Severity, a typhoon’s wind velocity and amount of
surge is caused primarily by a storm’s winds pushing rainfall, &
water onshore. 3.) Likelihood of Occurrence, a comparison of a disaster
 The amplitude of the storm surge at any given from the previous phenomenon.
location depends on the orientation of the coast line Meteorological Hazard Map
 shows or represents an area of land that is exposed 1. This tool operates on the principle of thermal
and/or vulnerable to a hydrometeorological hazard expansion of the material used such as mercury and
such as typhoons, storm surge, El Niño, La Niña, etc other metallic materials.

 Different Meteorological Hazard Map is depending  Thermometer

on the kind of meteorological hazard it represents.
2. A tool used for measuring wind speed in revolutions
Climate and Weather-related Hazards per minute.

 A natural hazard is defined as a natural occurrence  Anemometer

or an event that causes potential damages that may
3. This instrument works by catching precipitation in a
result in loss of life or injury, property, socio-
funnel-shaped collector attached to a measuring tube.
economic destruction, or environmental
degradation. (e.g., Typhoon, El Niño, La Niña, etc.)  Rain gauge
 Part of the map that is shaded the darkest are the 4. An instrument used for measuring the pressure of the
places that are at the very high risk in experiencing atmosphere.
typhoon or typhoon-prone areas.
 Barometer
 Places at the very high risk are said to be more
exposed to a hazard – in this case, the typhoon, thus 5. It is a device used for measuring wind direction and is
making them more vulnerable. usually combined with an anemometer.

 Places that are shaded the lightest are said to be  Wind Vane
safer from typhoons as they are more at low risk in Hydrometeorology
experiencing typhoon.
 is a branch of meteorology and hydrology that
1. What do you think is a Hazard Map? studies the transfer of water and energy between
A. representation of different places in a paper. the land surface and the lower atmosphere.
B. A diagrammatic representation of an area of land  This science aims to understand hydrologic
showing physical features. phenomena.
C. A map that highlights areas that are affected by or  studies the processes of the hydrological cycle that
are vulnerable to a particular hazard occur in the atmosphere namely; Evaporation,
D. All of the above. Condensation, and Precipitation, and in the ground
such as rainfall interception, infiltration, and surface
2. Which of the following hazards is being shown on the
runoff. Alongside with this, hydrometeorology also
map?
deals or studies the behavior of hydrologic elements
A. Drought B. Flood C. Landslide D. Typhoon
such as rivers, ponds, dams, etc.
 Studies the processes of the hydrological cycle that
3. Which of the following is TRUE about the given
occur in the atmosphere namely;
picture?
 Evaporation,
A. All of the given places will be flood free.
 Condensation, and
B. Sta. Lucia will not be affected by flooding.
 Precipitation, and
C. Oranbo will be greatly submerged to flooding.
 In the Ground such as rainfall interception,
D. San Joaquin will experience severe flooding than
infiltration, and surface runoff.
Buting.
 Hydrometeorology also deals or studies the
4. Which of the following is the importance of knowing behavior of hydrologic elements such as rivers,
a hazard map? ponds, dams, etc.
A. It provides information to help people understand the  Examples of Hydrometeorological hazards are
risk of natural hazards. common in the Philippines.
B. Hazard maps are developed to illuminate areas that  Tropical cyclones (typhoons),
are vulnerable to a hazard.  thunderstorms,
C. Both letters A and B are correct.  hailstorms, tornadoes,
D. None of the above choices are correct.  flash floods,
 floods,
5. The following are the advantages of using a hazard  drought,
map, EXCEPT?  El Niño, and La Niña.
A. Mitigation of negative effects of a hazard.
B. Identification of hazard-prone areas.
TOOLS USED FOR MONITORING
C. Preparation in case of disaster.
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS
D. All of the above.
Tools for Monitoring Hydrometeorological Hazards Thermometer
 Measures the degree of hotness or coldness of a D. All of the above.
given substance.
2. Which of the following differs Torricellian barometer
 A thermometer measures air temperature. from the Aneroid barometer?

 When the air around the tube heats the liquid, the A. It uses spring and needle for measurement.
liquid expands and moves up the tube.
B. It uses mercury and a tube for air pressure reading.
 A scale then shows what the actual temperature is.
C. It uses cups or propellers for measuring wind speed.
Aneroid Barometer
D. It uses different directions for identifying wind
 This tool measures air pressure and tell whether the direction.
pressure is rising or falling.
3. How does a thermometer work?
 Most of the barometers used today are electronic
A. Thermometers follow the principle of thermal
but there are two (2) kinds of traditional barometers
expansion.
called Torricellian (mercurial) and Aneroid (dial)
barometers. B. Thermometer is a tool that counts the number of
rotations.
 The Torricellian barometer was invented by
Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. C. Thermometer works by balancing the weight of
mercury in the glass tube against the atmospheric
Cup Anemometer
pressure.
 An anemometer is an instrument that measures
D. Thermometer works by catching the falling rain in a
wind speed and wind pressure.
funnel-shaped collector that is attached to a measuring
 Anemometer works by counting the number of tube.
rotations it made in each period.
4. Which of the following BEST describe how an
 Total distance (revolutions times circumference) Anemometer works?
divided by time is wind speed.
A. Thermometers follow the principle of thermal
Wind Vane expansion.

 A wind vane is one of the oldest meteorological B. Thermometer is a tool that counts the number of
instruments. rotations.

 It is a tool that indicates wind direction. C. Thermometer works by balancing the weight of
mercury in the glass tube against the atmospheric
 When mounted on an elevated shaft or spire, the
pressure.
vane rotates under the influence of the wind such
that its center of pressure rotates to leeward, and D. Thermometer works by catching the falling rain in a
the vane points into the wind. funnel-shaped collector that is attached to a measuring
tube.
 Wind direction is measured in degrees from true
north. 5. Which of the following is/are TRUE about the
Torricellian barometer?
Rain Gauge
I. It was discovered in 1645
 A rain gauge is a meteorological instrument that
measures precipitation such as rain in each amount II. It is placed in a bath of mercury.
of time per unit area.
II. It is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
 This instrument consists of a collection placed in an
A. I & II B. II & III
open area.
C. I & III D. I, II, & III
 These gauges work by catching the falling rain in a
funnel-shaped collector that is attached to a 4th Quarter ( Lesson 4) in General Biology 2
measuring tube.
Plants Nutrient Procurement and Processing
1. Which of the following BEST describes Anemometer?

A. A tool that measures atmospheric pressure.

Nutrient- refers to any substance required for the
B. A tool that measures how fast a wind moves. growth and maintenance of an organism. The two types
of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
C. A tool that uses the principle of thermal expansion.
A. autotrophs- organisms that obtain energy from •“It can be converted to ammonia (NH3)
sunlight and chemicals to produce their own food. through biological, physical, or chemical processes.
Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria

B. heterotrophs- organisms that cannot make their own

B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi
food and obtain their energy from other organisms.
Examples: animals, fungi Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi
and Roots Through mycorrhization, the plant obtains
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS IN PLANTS
phosphate and other minerals, such as zinc and copper,
A. Water from the soil.
B. Carbon dioxide
• The fungus obtains nutrients, such as sugars, from the
Water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials
plant root.
needed for photosynthesis, the process by
which plants convert the energy from sunlight • Mycorrhizae help increase the surface area of the
into chemical energy. plant root system because hyphae, which are narrow,
C. Essential nutrients or elements – which include can spread B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi.
macronutrients which are normally required in
amounts above 0.5% of the plant’s dry weight; • Hyphae are long extensions of the fungus, which can
and micronutrients which are required in grow into small soil pores that allow access to
minute or trace amounts. phosphorus otherwise unavailable to the plant.

D. Examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, C. Plant Parasites

Mg, P, S • A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some
E. Examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, parasitic plants have no leaves An example of this is the
Mo dodder which has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils
around the host and forms suckers.
SPECIALIZED ABSORPTIVE STRUCTURES
• From these suckers, cells invade the host stem and
A . Root hairs - slender extensions of specialized grow to connect with the vascular bundles of the host
epidermal cells that greatly increase the surface area plants.
available for absorption.
D. Predation
B. Root nodules - localized swellings in roots of certain
plants where bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the • Carnivorous plants have adapted to survive in areas
plant. with low nutrients soil by eating insects.

• The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn, • Plants with adaptations to protect themselves against
the bacteria can utilize some organic compounds predators can have thorns, a fragrance that repels
provided by the plant. predators, or oils that cause skin rash on the predator.

C. Mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) - "fungal root" - a

symbiotic interaction between a young root and a
fungus.

• The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing

compounds from root cells while the plant can get some
scarce minerals that the fungus is better able to absorb
from the soil.

Routes for the absorption of water and minerals across

plant roots:

A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata

B. Apoplast route – along cell walls

Nutritional Adaptation of Plants

A. Symbiosis of plants and Soil Microbe Nitrogen

Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions
• Nitrogen is an important macronutrient
because it is part of nucleic acids and proteins.
 Not enough = dehydration  causes problems in
circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems
Carbohydrates: main source of energy for the body
Protein: main source of building blocks for the body
Digestive Systemm-is made up of the digestive tract and
other organs that help the body break down and absorb Fats/Lipids: Used for cellular components and for
food. It help convert large food molecules into simpler storage of energy.
molecules (monomers) solids at room temp = saturated (butter and animal fat)

Main Stages of Food Processing liquids at room temp = unsaturated (vegetable oils)
A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; mechanical
Saturated fats are the “bad” fats, and unsaturated are
breakdown of food into smaller pieces
the “good” fats
B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles
C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid Proteins - 8 amino acids the body cannot make are
across the tube wall called “essential amino acids”
D. Elimination – expulsion of undigested and
unabsorbed materials Organic help regulate body processes
Most vitamins obtained from food
Oral Cavity – food is initially chewed into shreds by the
1. fat-soluble - A, D, E and K can be stored in fatty
teeth
tissues of body
Saliva is secreted into the mouth
2. water-soluble - C and B vitamins dissolve in water and
Pharynx –the region at the back of the throat can’t be stored
Esophagus – connects the pharynx with the stomach. Inorganic nutrients that the body needs in small
The gastric juice is a combination of HCl and acid-stable amounts, also called micronutrients

proteases. calcium  major component of bones and teeth

Small Intestines - 6 meters long and is composed of iron  makes hemoglobin magnesium, sodium and
potassium
three regions: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
Teeth - Mechanical work of digestion by cutting, tearing,
liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats
and crushing
gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver
Saliva – salivary glands - Helps to moisten food and
pancreas – secretes enzymes make it easier to chew
The large intestine shorter than the small intestine, Esophagus - Long tube of smooth muscle that connects
about 1 meter.It concentrates and stores undigested the pharynx with the stomach

matter. Chewed clump of food = bolus

The rectum is a short extension of the large intestine Epiglottis closes over trachea to keep food out

Anus - terminal opening of the digestive system Esophagus carries food to stomach
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth but could Contractions of smooth muscles (peristalsis)
not continue in the stomach Peristalsis-Squeeze food thru esophagus into stomach
Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine Reverse peristalsis = vomiting
Fat digestion occurs entirely in the small intestine. Cardiac sphincter prevents stomach contents from
Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion moving back up esophagus

or active transport. Stomach - Large sac of smooth muscle

A. The digestive system of animals is regulated in part by Chemical digestion - Gastric glands secrete substances
other organ systems, especially the nervous and Mechanical digestion - Mixture called chyme
endocrine systems. Small Intestine-Enters the duodenum (first of 3 parts of
Water is most important nutrient since it makes up bulk small intestine)

of blood Most of chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients

occurs in the small intestine
Drink at least 1-2 liters of water each day (6-8 cups) Mixes with fluids and enzymes from pancreas and liver
Pancreas-Produces hormones, enzymes, sodium Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the
bicarbonate body mainly uses these as building materials for cell
structures
Liver - Located above and to the right of the stomach.
Produces bile that acts as a detergent and is is stored in Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid
gallbladder hormones, and other cellular structures
Duodenum-First part of the small intestine Essential Nutrients-These include substances that
animals can only get from the foods they eat
Jejunum and ileum are remaining parts of small
intestine 1. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of
proteins and enzymes
Villi are fingerlike projections
2. Essential fatty acids – used for making special
Appendix: in humans does little to promote digestion, membrane lipids
but in other mammals it stores cellulose and other
materials 3. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small
amounts for normal metabolism
Large Intestine (colon) - Primary function is to remove
water from the undigested material 4. Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients
needed by the body in minute amounts
Peptic ulcer  powerful acids in stomach damage
stomach wall Food Uptake in Cells
Helicobacter pylori – cause of ulcer I. phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big
particles
Diarrhea  not enough water is absorbed
II. pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell
Constipation  too much water is absorbed
III. receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on
Excretory System Function - Function of the excretory membrane receptor recognition
system is to maintain homeostasis in the body by
eliminating metabolic (cellular) wastes Feeding Mechanisms
skin  excretes water and salts, small amount of urea I. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their
(sweat) food source
lungs  excretes carbon dioxide II. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals
liver  converts nitrogenous wastes from digestion into III. Fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from
urea a living host.
kidneys  excretes urea and other metabolic wastes IV. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food
Kidneys - The kidneys are bean-shaped organs I. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse
with lysosomes
How Do the Kidneys Work?
II. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system
 Remove excess water from the blood – composed of a single opening through which food is
 Remove urea from the blood taken
Kidney Structure III. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube
Each kidney is made of many smaller units called with an opening at one end
nephrons I. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats
Ureter- tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the II. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver
urinary bladder
III. pancreas – secretes enzymes that breakdown all
Urethra- tube that carries urine from the bladder and major food molecules.
releases it from the body
Urinary Bladder- saclike organ which stores urine before
it is excreted
Urine Formation - In each nephron, urea and water are
filtered out of the blood, and some water is reabsorbed.
Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of
energy contained in food.
Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the
cells in the body.