LECTURE 1

Utilization of
Assessment
Data
 2

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Apply statistics in research and in any systematic investigation;
2. Construct frequency distribution for a given set of scores;
3. Graph the scores using histogram and frequency distribution;
4. Calculate the mean, median, and mode, decile, quartile, and
percentile of the students’ scores;
5. Identify the different properties of the measure of central
tendency;
6. Identify the uses of the different measures of variability;
 3

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
7. Calculate the value and make an analysis of range, mean
deviation, quantitative, quartile deviation, variance and
standard deviation of given scores;
8. Differentiate standard deviation from coefficient of variation;
9. Identify the properties of the different measures of variability;
10. Apply the concept of skewness in identifying the performance
of the students;
11. Determine the spread of scores using the measures of
variation;
 4

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
12. Compare the performance of the students using measures of
central tendency and measures of variability;
13. Convert raw scores to standard scores;
14. Determine the relationship of two groups of scores; and
15. Computer r and p value of scores and make an analysis.
 5

INTRODUCTION
• Statistics is a very important tool in the utilization of
the assessment data most especially in describing,
analyzing, and interpreting the performance of the
students in the assessment procedures.
• The teachers should have the necessary
background in the statistical procedures used in
assessment of student learning.
A Taxonomy of Statistics 6
 7

AN OVERVIEW OF
STATISTICS
 8

Data and Statistics

• Data consists of information coming from observations,
counts, measurements, or responses.
• Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
analyzing, and interpreting data in order to make
decisions.
• A population is the collection of all outcomes,
responses, measurement, or counts that are of interest.
• A sample is a subset of a population.
 9

Populations & Samples

Example:

In a recent survey, 250 college students at Union College

were asked if they smoked cigarettes regularly. Thirty-five
(35) of the students said yes. Identify the population and the
sample.
10
 11

DEFINITION OF STATISTICS
• Statistics is a branch of science, which deals with
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
quantitative data.
• Descriptive statistics is a method concerned with
collecting, describing, and analyzing a set of data without
drawing conclusions (or inferences) about a large group.
• Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics, concerned
with the analysis of a subset of data leading to predictions
or inferences about the entire set of data.
 Descriptive & Inferential 13

Statistics
Example:
In a recent study, volunteers who had less than 6 hours of
sleep were four times more likely to answer incorrectly on a
science test than were participants who had at least 8 hours
of sleep. Decide which part is the descriptive statistic and
what conclusion might be drawn using inferential statistics.
 14

The statement “four times more likely to answer

incorrectly” is a descriptive statistic. An inference
drawn from the sample is that all individuals sleeping
less than 6 hours are more likely to answer science
question incorrectly than individuals who sleep at
least 8 hours.
 15

DATA CLASSIFICATION
Types of Data 16
Qualitative & Quantitative Data
17
 18

Qualitative Data
Qualitative data can be separated into two subgroups:
• Dichotomic – if it takes the form of a word with two
options (sex – male or female)
• Polynomic – if it takes the form of a word with more than
two options (education – primary school, secondary
school and university)
 19

Qualitative Data
Data Sample of Qualitative Data

The data are the colors of backpacks. You sample five

students. One student has a red backpack, two students
have black backpacks, one student has a green backpack,
and one student has a gray backpack. The colors red,
black, green, and gray are qualitative data.
 20

Quantitative Data
Quantitative data are always numbers and are the result of
counting or measuring attributes of a population.
Quantitative data can be separated into two subgroups:
• Discrete – if it is the result of counting (the number of
students of a given ethnic group in a class, the number of
books on a shelf)
• Continuous – if it is the result of measuring (distance
traveled, weight of luggage)
 21

Quantitative Data
Data Sample of Quantitative Discrete Data

The data are the number of books students carry in their

backpacks. You sample five students. Two students carry
three books, one student carries four books, one student
carries two books, and one student carries one book. The
number of books (three, four, two, and one) are the
quantitative discrete data.
 22

Quantitative Data
Data Sample of Quantitative Continuous Data

The data are the weights of backpacks with books in them.

You sample the same five students. The weights (in pounds)
of their backpacks are 6.2, 7, 6.8, 9.1, 4.3. Notice that
backpacks carrying three books can have different weights.
Weights are quantitative continuous data because weights are
measured.
 23

You go to the supermarket and purchase three cans of soup

(19 ounces) tomato bisque, 14.1 ounces lentil, and 19 ounces
Italian wedding, two packages of nuts (walnuts and peanuts),
four different kinds of vegetable (broccoli, cauliflower, spinach,
and carrots), and two desserts (16 ounces Cherry Garcia ice
cream and two pounds (32 ounces) chocolate cookies).

Name data sets that are quantitative discrete, continuous, and

qualitative.
 24

Solution

One Possible Solution:

• The three cans of soup, two packages of nuts, four kinds of
vegetables and two desserts are quantitative discrete data because
you count them.
• The weights of the soups (19 ounces, 14.1 ounces, 19 ounces) are
quantitative continuous data because you measure weights as
precisely as possible.
• Types of soups, nuts, vegetables and desserts are qualitative data
because they are categorical.
25
 26

Work collaboratively to determine the correct data type (quantitative or

qualitative). Indicate whether quantitative data are continuous or discrete.

1) The number of pairs of shoes you own

2) The type of car you drive
3) Where you go on vacation
4) The distance it is from your home to the nearest grocery store
5) The number of classes you take per school year
6) The tuition for your classes
7) The type of calculator you use
8) Movie ratings
9) Political party preferences
 27

Work collaboratively to determine the correct data type (quantitative or

qualitative). Indicate whether quantitative data are continuous or
discrete.

10) Weights of sumo wrestlers

11) Amount of money (in peso) won playing poker
12) Number of correct answers on a quiz
13) People’s attitudes toward the government
14) IQ scores
 Numerical Scale of Measurement 28

• Nominal – consist of categories in each of which the number of respective

observations is recorded. The categories are in no logical order and have no
particular relationship. The categories are said to be mutually exclusive since
an individual, object, or measurement can be included in only one of them.
• Ordinal – contain more information. Consists of distinct categories in which
order is implied. Values in one category are larger or smaller than values in
other categories (e.g. rating-excelent, good, fair, poor).
• Interval – is a set of numerical measurements in which the distance between
numbers is of a known, constant size.
• Ratio – consists of numerical measurements where the distance between
numbers is of a known, constant size, in addition, there is a nonarbitrary zero
point.
Levels of Measurement
29
Nominal Level of Measurement
30
Ordinal Level of Measurement
31
Interval Level of Measurement
32
Ratio Level of Measurement
33
Summary of Levels of Measurement
34
 35

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

• Frequency distribution is a tabular arrangement of

data into appropriate categories showing the number
of observations in each category or group.
• There are two major advantages: (a) it encompasses
the size of the table; and (b) it makes the data more
interpretive.
 36

Parts of Frequency Table

1. Class limit is the groupings or categories defined by the lower
and upper limits.
Example: LL – UL
10 – 14
15 – 19
20 – 24
Lower class limit (LL) represents the smallest number in each
group.
Upper class limit (UL) represents the highest number in each
group.
 37

Parts of Frequency Table

2. Class size (c.i) is the width of each class interval.

Example: LL – UL
10 – 14
15 – 19
20 – 24

The class size in this score distribution is 5.

 38

Parts of Frequency Table

3. Class boundaries are the numbers used to

separate each category in the frequency
distribution but without gaps created by the class
limits. The scores of the students are discrete. Add
0.5 to the upper limit to get the upper class
boundary and subtract 0.5 to the lower limit to
get the lower class boundary in each group or
category.
 39

Parts of Frequency Table

Example: LL – UL Lcb - Ucb

10 – 14 9.5 – 14.5
15 – 19 14.5 – 19.5
20 – 24 19.5 – 24.5
 40

Parts of Frequency Table

4. Class marks are the midpoint of the lower and

𝐿𝐿+𝑈𝐿
upper class limits. The formula is 𝑋𝑀 = 2 .

Example: LL – UL 𝑋𝑀
10 – 14 12
15 – 19 17
20 – 24 22
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 41

Distribution
1. Compute the value of the range (R). Range is the
difference between the highest score and the lowest
score.
R = HS – LS

2. Determine the class size (c.i).

𝑅 𝑅
𝑐. 𝑖 = or 𝑐. 𝑖 =
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑘
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 42

Distribution
3. Set up the class limits of each class or category.
Each class defined by the lower limit and upper limit.
Use the lowest score as the lower limit of the first
class.
4. Set up the class boundaries if needed. Use the
formula:
𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑈𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑏 =
2
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 43

Distribution

5. Tally the scores in the appropriate

classes.
6. Find the other parts if necessary such
as class marks, among others.
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 44

Distribution

Example: Raw scores of 40 students

in a 50-item science quiz. Construct a
frequency distribution following the
steps given previously.
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 45

Distribution

17 25 30 33 25 45 23 19
27 35 45 48 20 38 39 18
44 22 46 26 36 29 15-LS 21
50-HS 47 34 26 37 25 33 49
22 33 44 38 46 41 37 32
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 46

Distribution
R = HS – LS Solve the value of k.
= 50-15 k = 1 + 3.3 log n
R = 35 k = 1 + 3.3 log 40
n = 40 k = 1 + 3.3 (1.602059991)
k = 1 + 5.286797971
k = 6.286797971
k=6
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 47

Distribution
Find the class size.
𝑅
𝑐. 𝑖 =
𝑘
35
𝑐. 𝑖 =
6
𝑐. 𝑖 = 5.833
𝒄. 𝒊 = 𝟔
 Steps in Constructing Frequency 48

Distribution
• Construct the class limit starting with the lowest score
as the lower limit of the first category.
• The last category should contain the highest score in
the distribution.
• Each category should contain 6 as the size of the
width (X).
• Count the number of scores that falls in each category
(f).
 49

X Tally frequency (f)

15-20 //// 4
21-26 ///////// 9
27-32 /// 3
33-38 ////////// 10
39-44 //// 4
 50

Find the class boundaries and class marks of the given score
distribution. n = 40

Class
X f Xm
Boundaries
15-20 4 14.5-20.5 17.5
21-26 9 20.5-26.5 23.5
27-32 3 26.5-32.5 29.5
33-38 10 32.5-38.5 35.5
39-44 4 38.5-44.5 41.5
45-50 10 44.5-50.5 47.5
 Graphical Representation of 51

Scores in Frequency Distribution

• The scores expressed in frequency distribution can be
meaningful and easier to interpret when they are graphed.
• Histogram consists of a set of rectangles having bases on the
horizontal axis which centers at the class marks. Histogram is
best used for graphical representation of discrete data or non-
continuous data.
• Frequency polygon is constructed by plotting the class marks
against the class frequencies. This is best used in representing
continuous data such as the scores of students in a given test.
52
53
 DESCRIBING GROUP 54

PERFORMANCE
• There are two major concepts in describing the
assessed performance of the group: measures of
central tendency and measures of variability.
• Measures of central tendency are used to
determine the average score of a group of scores
while measures of variability indicate the spread of
scores in the group.
 55

Measure of Central Tendency

o explain your
ideas
• Describes a set of scores with a single number that
describes the performance of the group.
• A single value that is used to describe the “center” of
the data.
• There are three (3) commonly used measures of
central tendency. These are the mean, median, and
mode.
 Measure of Central Tendency 56

(Mean)
1. Mean is the most commonly used measure of the center of data and it
also referred as the “arithmetic average”.

Computation of Population Mean

Σ𝑋 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + ⋯ 𝑋𝑛
𝜇= =
𝑁 𝑁
Computation of Sample Mean

Σ𝑥 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛
𝑥ҧ = =
𝑛 𝑛
 Measure of Central Tendency 57

(Mean)
1. Mean is the most commonly used measure of the center of data and it
also referred as the “arithmetic average”.

Computation of the Mean for Ungrouped Data

Σ𝑥
• 𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
Σ𝑓𝑥
• 𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
 58

Scores of 15 students in Mathematics I quiz consist of 25 items. The highest

score is 25 and the lowest score is 10. Here are the scores: 25, 20, 18, 18, 17, 15,
x (scores) 15, 15, 14, 14, 13, 12, 12, 10. Find the mean in the following scores.
25
20 Σ𝑥 = 228; n=15 The average performance of 15 students
18
who participated in a mathematics quiz
18 Σ𝑥 228
17 𝑥ҧ = = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐 consisting of 25 items is 15.2. The implication
15 𝑛 15 of this is that student who got scores below
15 15.2 did not perform well in the said
15
14 examination. Students who got scores higher
14 than 15.2 performed well in the examination
13 compared to the performance of the whole
12
12
class.
10
 59

Find the Grade Point Average (GPA) of Ritz Glenn for the first semester of the
school year 2010-2011. Use the table below:
Subjects Grade (Xi) Units (Wi) (Wi)(Xi)
BM112 1.25 3 3.75
Σ(𝑊𝑖 )(𝑋𝑖 )
BM101 1.00 3 3.00 𝑥ҧ =
Σ𝑊𝑖
AC103N 1.25 6 7.50
BEC111 1.00 3 3.00
32
MGE101 1.50 3 4.50 𝑥ҧ =
MKM101 1.25 3 3.75
26
FM111 1.50 3 4.50
𝑥ҧ = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑
PEN2 1.00 2 2.00

𝜮 𝑾𝒊 = 𝟐𝟔 𝜮 𝑾𝒊 𝑿𝒊 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟎𝟎
 Measure of Central Tendency 60

(Mean)
Mean for Grouped Data
• Grouped data are the data or scores that are arranged in a
frequency distribution.
• Frequency distribution is the arrangement of scores according
to category of classes including the frequency.
• Frequency is the number of observations falling in a category.
• Mean for grouped data is also called midpoint method.
Σ𝑓𝑥𝑚
𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
 Measure of Central Tendency 61

(Mean)
Mean for Grouped Data

Σ𝑓𝑥𝑚
𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
Where: x = mean value
f = frequency in each class or category
𝑥𝑚 = midpoint of each class or category
Σ𝑓𝑥𝑚 =summation of the product of 𝑓𝑥𝑚
 Measure of Central Tendency 62

(Mean)
Steps in Solving Mean for Grouped Data
1. Find the midpoint or class mark (𝑥𝑚 ) of each class or
𝐿𝐿+𝑈𝐿
category using the formula 𝑥𝑚 = .
2
2. Multiply the frequency and the corresponding class
mark 𝑓𝑥𝑚 .
3. Find the sum of the results in step 2.
Σ𝑓𝑥𝑚
4. Solve the mean using the formula 𝑥ҧ = .
𝑛
 63

Scores of 40 students in a science class consist of 60 items and they are

tabulated below.
X f 𝑿𝒎 𝒇𝒙𝒎
Σ𝑓𝑥𝑚 1345
10-14 5 12 60 𝑥ҧ = 𝑥ҧ = ഥ = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟑
𝒙
15-19 2 17 34
𝑛 40
20-24 3 22 66
Analysis: The mean performance of
25-29 5 27 135
40 students in science quiz is 33.63.
30-34 2 32 64 Those students who got scores below
35-39 9 37 333 33.63 did not perform well in the said
40-44 6 42 252 examination while those students who
45-49 3 47 141 got scores above 33.63 performed
50-54 5 52 260 well.
n = 40 𝜮𝒇𝒙𝒎 =1345
 Measure of Central Tendency 64

(Mean)
Properties of the Mean
1. It measures stability. Mean is the most stable among other
measures of central tendency because every score contributes to
the value of the mean;
2. The sum of each score’s distance (deviations) from the mean is
zero;
3. It is easily affected by the extreme scores (outliers);
4. It may not be an actual score in the distribution;
5. It can be applied to interval level of measurement; and
6. It is very easy to compute.
 Measure of Central Tendency 65

(Mean)

When to Use the Mean

1. Sampling stability is desired.
2. Other measures are to be computed such as
standard deviation, coefficient of variation and
skewness.
 Measure of Central Tendency 66

(Median)
• Median is the second type of measures of central tendency.
• Median is what divides the scores in the distribution into two equal
parts.
• Fifty percent (50%) lies below the median value and 50% lies above the
median value.
• Also known as the middle score or the 50th percentile.
• Numbers must be arranged from lowest to highest.
• When the number cases are odd, the median score is a score that
has the same number of scores below and above it.
• When the scores are even, determine the average of the two middle
most scores that have equal number of scores below and above it.
 Measure of Central Tendency 67

(Median)
Median of Ungrouped Data
1. Arrange the scores.
2. Determine the middle most score in a
distribution if n is an odd number and get the
average of the two middle most scores if n is
an even number.
 Measure of Central Tendency 68

(Median)
Example 1

Find the median score of 7 students in an

English class.
 Measure of Central Tendency 69

(Median)
Example 2

Find the median score of 8 students in an

English class.
 Measure of Central Tendency 70

(Median)
Median of Grouped Data
Formula:
𝑛
𝑥෤ = 𝐿𝐵 2 − 𝑐𝑓𝑝 𝑐. 𝑖
𝑓𝑚

෥ = 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝒙
𝑛
MC = median class is a category containing the
2
𝑳𝑩 = 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝐶
cfp = cumulative frequency before the median class if the scores are arranged from
lowest to highest value
fm = frequency of the median class
c.i = size of the class interval
 Measure of Central Tendency 71

(Median)
Steps in Solving Median for Grouped Data
1. Complete the table for cf<.
𝑛
2. Get of the scores in the distribution so that
2
you can identify MC.
3. Determine 𝐿𝐵 , cfp, fm, and c.i.
4. Solve the median using the formula.
 Measure of Central Tendency 72

(Median)
Example 3

Scores of 40 students in a science class consist

of 60 items and they are tabulated. The highest
score is 54 and the lowest score is 10.
 Measure of Central Tendency 73

(Median)
Properties of the Median
1. It may not be an actual observation in the
data set.
2. It can be applied in ordinal level.
3. It is not affected by extreme values because
median is a positional measure.
 Measure of Central Tendency 74

(Median)

When to Use the Median

1. The exact midpoint of the score distribution is
desired.
2. There are extreme scores in the distribution.
 Measure of Central Tendency 75

(Mode)
• Mode is the third measure of central tendency.
• The mode or the modal score is a score or scores that
occurred most in the distribution.
• Unimodal is a distribution of scores that consists of only one
mode.
• Bimodal is a distribution of scores that consists of two modes.
• Trimodal is a distribution of scores that consists of three
modes or multimodal is a distribution of scores that consists
of more than two modes.
Example 1. Scores of 10 students in Section A, Section B, and Section C
76

Scores of Section A Scores of Section B Scores of Section C

25 25 25

24 24 25

24 24 25

20 20 22

20 18 21

20 18 21

16 17 21

12 10 18

10 9 18

7 7 18
 Measure of Central Tendency 77

(Mode)
Mode for Grouped Data
In solving the mode value using grouped data, use the formula:

𝑑1
𝑥ො = 𝐿𝐵 𝑐. 𝑖
𝑑1 + 𝑑2

𝑳𝑩 = 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

Modal Class (MC) = is a category containing the highest frequency
d1 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency above it,
when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest
d2 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency below it,
when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest
c.i = size of the class interval
Example 2. Scores of 40 students in a science class consist of 60 items and they are
78
tabulated below.
x f
10-14 5
15-19 2
20-24 3
25-29 5
30-34 2
35-39 9
40-44 6
45-49 3
50-54 5
n = 40
 Measure of Central Tendency 79

(Mode)
Properties of the Mode
1. It can be used when the data are qualitative
as well as quantitative.
2. It may not be unique.
3. It is not affected by extreme values.
4. It may not exist.
 Measure of Central Tendency 80

(Mode)
When to Use the Mode
1. When the “typical” value is desired.
2. When the data set is measured on a
nominal scale.
 Measure of Central Tendency 81

(Quantiles)
• Quantile is a score distribution where the scores are
divided into different equal parts.
• Quartile is a score point that divides the scores in the
distribution into four (4) equal parts.
• Decile is a score point that divides the scores in the
distribution into ten (10) equal parts.
• Percentile is a score that divides the scores in the
distribution into hundred (100) equal parts.