TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

12
BIODIVERSITY

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
▪ identify organisms using diagnostic features of the five Kingdoms
▪ use diagnostic features to divide kingdoms into phyla
▪ state the taxonomic hierarchy
▪ observe the rules of binomial nomenclature
▪ describe the socio-economic importance of the five Kingdoms

Diversity is the variety of living organisms. Organisms have been grouped together for studies of
their characteristics. The grouping of organisms is called classification. Classification is based on
agreed name of each organism
Hierarchy of classification
- All life forms are categorized into a scheme that had 7 categorical terms. The biggest group
are Kingdom, the smallest one is Species.
- Systems of classification are hierarchical i.e each successive group contains more and more
different kinds of organisms
- Taxon is the general name given to each classification grouping
- Taxonomy is the science of classification of organisms into groups called taxon
- The longest taxon is the species and the highest taxon is the kingdom
- Phylogeny is the study of evolutionary traits
- Organisms can exist in only one group at each level of classification. For example, an
organism can only belong to one kingdom or one genus.
African baobab African Elephant White Rhinoceros
Kingdom Plantae Animalia Animalia
Phylum/division Magnoliophyta Chordata Chordata
Class Magnoliopsida Mammalia Mammalia
Order Mavales Proboscidea Perissodactyla
Family Malvaceae Elephantidae Rhinocerotidae
Genus Adansonia Loxodonta Ceratotherium
Species Digitata Africana Simum
Scientific name Adansonia digitata Loxodonta africana Ceratotherium simum

1 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

NB. When writing a scientific name, you write the first letter of the genus name with a capital
letter and the species name with a small letter

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Kingdom is the largest grouping of organisms’ e.g animalia
Phylum consists of organisms with many similarities e.g bryophyte, cnidarians etc.
Class consists of organisms which are grouped into several orders with few similarities
Order is a group of apparently related families
Family is a group of apparently related genera
Genus is a group of similar and closely related species
Species is a group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile off springs

Classification of living organisms

Classification (taxonomy): The scientific method of dividing organisms into smaller and larger
groups, on basis of their similarities.
Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus is the Father of Systematic Biology. He believed he could:
i. Put every organism into a group (the science of TAXONOMY)
ii. Give every organism a name (the science of NOMENCLATURE).
Carolus Linnaeus organized taxonomy (1735). In his BINOMIAL SYSTEM, every living
organism has a unique, two-part name: The first name is Genus, the second name is species.
Names are written in Latin, printed in italics. The genus always has a capital letter, and the
species always has a small letter. For examples:

Kingdoms
- Organisms were once classified into two kingdoms i.e Animalia and Plantae in which all
organisms that were not animals were placed in Plantae kingdom e.g Fungi,
spirogyra/protoctists
- This was known as two kingdom classification
- This had an advantage that it was easy to classify the organisms into appropriate kingdom; it
was also consistent with the traditional literature

2 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

- However it had drawbacks such as problems with protoctists e.g Euglena is photosynthetic-
plant like and motile-animal like
- It was not very late that Margulis and Perutz introduced the five kingdom classification in
which organisms were classified as Plants, Fungi, Prokaryote, Protoctists and Animalia

KINGDOM MONERA
Includes the bacteria and cyanobacteria (commonly called blue-green algae).Bacteria were the
first organisms to evolve on planet earth. Monerans are also the most numerous of all living
organisms.
Even though most bacteria make us ill, they have a long-term mutual relationship with humans
and are very much important for our survival

Diagnostic features of the kingdom Prokaryotae

Lack true nucleus. Since only bacteria are prokaryotic (lacking a true nucleus), that is without
nuclear membrane), monera is the only prokaryotic kingdom
- Circular DNA lies free in the cytoplasm
- Unicellular
- No membrane bound organelles
- Mesosomes for respiration (instead of mitochondria)
- have 70s ribosomes
- Cell walls of murein (peptidoglycan)
- Average diameter 0.5-5 micrometers
- reproduce asexually by binary fission

Structure of a bacterial cell

The single celled bacterum has a cell wall made of compound peptido-glycan covering the cell
membrane; a single chromosome. The cell has ribosomes but no membrane bound organelles.

3 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Cell wall - All prokaryotes have a rigid cell wall, which protects and gives shape to the cell. The
cell wall is made up of a chemical, peptidoglycan, unique to bacteria.
Pili (Singular: pilus) -Pili are short and thin thread like structures projecting out from the cell
wall in some bacteria.
Flagella - Some bacteria move with the help of one or two flagella. Flagella are longer and
thicker than pili. Their structure is different from flagella of eukaryotes.
Plasma Membrane - Plasma membrane, present below the cell wall, encloses the cytoplasm and
other cell contents. It is made up of lipids and proteins, as in eukaryotes.
Genetic Material - One circular chromosome made of a double helical molecule of DNA is
located in a region of the cytoplasm called nucleoid. Since the chromosome is not lodged within
a true nucleus, bacteria are termed prokaryotes. Hence Monera is the prokaryotic kingdom. Apart
from the chromosome many species of bacteria possess rings of DNA called plasmids, which
replicate along with bacterial chromosome and bear genes for antibiotic resistance, sex factor etc.
Cell Organelles - Membrane bound organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,
chloroplast, Golgi complex are absent. Only ribosomes are present, which are different from
those of eukaryotes
Prokaryotes have no nuclear membrane around genetic material and no cell organelles. They
have only the ribosomes.

Monera - General body functions

A. Nutrition
The four nutritional categories found in bacteria are:

- Autotrophs - Synthesize their own organic food.

- Saprotrophs - Feed on dead and decaying matter.
- Symbionts - Use food from other living organisms with which they are associated for
mutual benefit.
- Parasites - absorb food from living organisms and cause harm to then

B. Respiration
Respiration in bacteria may be either

- Aerobic i.e. using oxygen for respiration or

- Anaerobic i.e. respiration in the absence of oxygen.

Cellular respiration or breakdown of food to release energy occurs in mesosomes which are the
inner extensions of the cell membrane.

C. Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction

4 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission under favorable conditions it takes about 20
minutes for one bacteria to divide into two by binary fission.

Sexual Reproduction
Some bacteria show a primitive mode of sexual It is different from sexual reproduction in
higher forms. The steps are:
a) Two conjugating (lie very close for exchange of genes) bacteria are held together by pili.
b) A segment of DNA strand is transferred from one bacterium to another bacterium.

Kingdom Monera includes two groups

1. Archaebacteria and
2. Eubacteria
Archaebacteria includes bacteria that live in unusual environments particularly at low levels of
oxygen. Main types of Archaebacteria are Methanogenic bacteria that live in sewage and intestinal
tracts of animals Thermoacidophilic bacteria that live in hot springs.
Archaebacteria are a very diverse group of bacteria and have several features that set them apart
from the other Prokaryotae. Their cell walls lack a structure called the peptidoglycan , which is a
rigid and stress-bearing network necessary for the survival of other bacteria. Archaebacteria live
in extreme environments such as deep-sea vents, hot springs, and very salty water. Finally, some
metabolic processes of Archaebacteria are dierent from other bacteria.

KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Protoctista are unicellular eukaryotes. Protozoa and diatoms and algae are included in it. Made
up of eukaryotes no longer classified as animals, plants or Fungi e.g algae and protozoa. Some
protoctists are beneficial to humans while others are harmful.
Diagnostic features of the Kingdom Protista

5 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Filamentous
- No leaf structure
- No roots
- No stems
- The primary feature of all protists is that they are eukaryotic organisms. This means that they
have a membrane enclosed nucleus. Other characteristic features of Kingdom Protista are as
follows:
- These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
- Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few multicellular protists
such as kelp. Some species of kelp grow so large that they exceed over 100 feet in height.
(Giant Kelp).
- They have membrane bound organelles such as nucleus with chromosomes enclosed in
nuclear membrane, mitochondria, chloroplast (in photosynthetic protoctists only), golgi
bodies and endoplasmic reticulum.
- Mitochondria are the respiratory organelles.
- They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature. An autotrophic organism can create their
own food and survive. A heterotrophic organism, on the other hand, has to acquire nutrition
from other organisms such as plants or animals to survive.
- Protoctists are either photosynthetic, parasitic or saprotrophic. Symbiosis is observed in the
members of this class. For instance, kelp (seaweed) is a multicellular protist that provides
otters protection from predators amidst its thick kelp. In turn, the otters eat sea urchins that
tend to feed on kelp. Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species such as Trypanosoma
protozoa can cause sleeping sickness in humans.
- Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella. For locomotion, protoctists may have
cilia or flagella having 9 + 2 microtubules unlike those of bacteria, which have the 9 + 1
arrangement of microtubules. A few organisms belonging to kingdom Protista have
pseudopodia that help them to move.
- They reproduce both asexually and sexually. The sexual method of reproduction is extremely
rare and occurs only during times of stress.

6 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Classification of Protista
Kingdom Protista is classified into the following:

PROTOZOA
Protozoans are unicellular organisms. These are also called animal protists. All protozoans are
heterotrophic, i.e., they feed on other organisms to obtain nutrition.
There are also parasitic protozoans which live in the cells of larger organisms. Most of the
members do not have a predefined shape. For instance, an amoeba can change its shape
indefinitely but a paramecium has a definite slipper-like shape. The most well-known examples
of protozoans are an amoeba, paramecium, Sporozoa, euglena etc.
These are not classified under animals simply because they are unicellular
The protozoans can be divided into four major groups:
1. Amoeboid protozoans – Mostly found in water bodies, either fresh or saline. They have
pseudopodia (false feet) which help to change their shape and in capturing and engulfing food.
Eg., Amoeba
2. Flagellated protozoans – As the name suggests, the members of this group have flagella.
They can be free living as well as parasitic. E.g., Euglena
3. Ciliated protozoans – They have cilia all over their body which help in locomotion as well as
nutrition. They are always aquatic. e.g., Paramecium
4. Sporozoans – These organisms are so called because their life cycle has a spore-like stage.
For example, the malarial parasite, Plasmodium. All sporozoans are endoparasites. Some
sporozoans such as Eimeria cause severe diseases like coccidiosis in the birds. Nutrition is
parasitic (absorptive).

7 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

SLIME MOULDS
Moulds are saprophytic organisms (they feed on the dead and decaying matter). They are
basically divided into two types viz. slime moulds and the water moulds. These are tiny
organisms that have many nuclei.
Usually, moulds are characterized by the presence of spores and are even visible to the naked
eye. One of the best known molds is Penicillium chrysogenum, which is used to create the
antibiotic penicillin.
They are not classified under fungi because they have a cellulose cell wall

ALGAE
These form another category under kingdom Protista. These are generally single-celled or
multicellular organisms. These are photosynthetic, found mostly in freshwater sources or marine
lakes. They are characterized by a stiff cell wall.
The algae are divided into six types, namely, green algae, brown algae, red algae, diatoms,
pyrrophytes, and euglenoids. Well known examples of algae are Volvox, Netrium, and Spirogyra
etc.
They are not classified under plants because their method re reproduction differs significantly
from that of plants
Some examples of Protoctists
1. Amoeba
Amoeba is commonly found in the mud in fresh water ponds and ditches containing decaying
leaves. – It has blunt pseudopodia for locomotion. – It captures food by pseudopodia to form a
food vacuole. – It has a contractile vacuole for osmoregulation
Reproduction: Sexual reproduction is absent in Amoeba. Asexual reproduction is by binary
fission.
2. Entamoeba
One common species is Entamoeba histolytica which cause amoebic dysentery in humans. It is
amoeboid in form. New host gets infected when the cyst is swallowed along with contaminated
food or water. The cyst bursts and releases Entamoeba in the intestines where it causes local
abscesses (open injury). The symptoms of amoebic dysentery are abdominal pain, nausea, blood
and mucus with stool.
3. Plasmodium (The malarial parasite)

8 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

The life cycle of Plasmodium has both asexual and sexual phases. – The asexual phase is spent
in the human blood. – Sexual phase is spent in the female Anopheles mosquito
4. Euglena
– A fresh water Flagellate Euglena is abundantly found in stagnant waters such as pools, ponds,
ditches etc. Containing decaying organic matter. Pellicle - elastic body covering made up of
protein.

Fig 2.7 Euglena - General Structure

Cytostome and Reservoir - the cell mouth leading into a tubular cytopharynx which opens into
a vesicle called reservoir.
Stigma - a prominent red pigment spot. It is sensitive to light.
Contractile Vacuole - for osmoregulation.
Flagellum - for propulsion in water.
Chloroplast - contain green coloured chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Reproduction - is by binary fission.

5. The Diatoms
The diatoms are found in both fresh and salt water and in moist soil.
Thousands of species of diatoms form food for aquatic animals.

9 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Diatoms are either unicellular, colonial or filamentous and occur in a wide variety of shapes
Each cell has a single prominent nucleus and plastids. They produce shells (cell walls)
containing silica.
6. Other Algae
– Algae can be unicellular e.g. Chlamydomonas or multi-cellular like Spirogyra
– Some algae have other pigments also e.g. blue pigment (Phycocyanin), a brown pigment
(Fucoxanthin) or a red pigment (Phycoerythrin). Depending on the pigment present, the algae are
called blue, green, brown or red algae.
Color of the Red Sea is due to the dominant occurrence of a red alga.
Structurally the algae have a definite – wall, cell membrane, a nucleus, cell cytoplasm
and chloroplast. The chloroplast is cup-shaped in Chlamydomonas and ribbon-shaped in
Spirogyra. Pyrenoid bodies are attached to chloroplasts.

PROTOZOA ALGAE
Non-photosynthetic photosynthetic
Parasitic and some free living Free living/non parasitic
No cell walls Have cellulose cell walls
Small and temporary food vacuoles Large permanent vacuoles
Some motile and some non -Non motile
motile
Unicellular Multicellular or unicellular
No tissues formed No tissues
Some have differentiated anterior and posterior No distinct anterior and posterior
No transport system No transport/vascular system

KINGDOM FUNGI
Diagnostic features of the Kingdom Fungi
- Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and heterotrophic organisms.
- Some are unicellular e.g yeast and some are multicellular e.g mushroom
- Non photosynthetic. Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform photosynthesis
- Heterotrophic/saprotrophic/parasitic/mutualistic
- Nutrition is absorptive-digestion takes place outside the body and nutrients are absorbed
- Cell walls made of chitin
- Body is a mycelium a network of fine tubular filaments called hyphae growing from
horizontal hyphae the stolon

10 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

- End of hyphae bears sporangia which are a reproductive organ for spore formation
- Store carbohydrate as glycogen or starch
- The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual. Asexual reproduction by spore formation
Fungi is a eukaryotic organism that includes microorganisms such as yeasts, moulds, and
mushrooms.
Fungi are heterotrophs that are important decomposers; most are saprobes (grow on nonliving
organic matter), and some are parasites (grow on organic matter of living organisms). Digestion
is extracellular; fungal cells secrete powerful digestive enzymes into their surroundings.
Nutrients are then absorbed. Most fungi consist of multicellular filaments called hyphae (hypha
is singular); hyphae are tube shaped and have walls made of the nitrogenous polysaccharide
chitin, which makes them resistant to heat, cold, and desiccation. Cross walls are present for
strength, and these are perforated so that cytoplasm is continuous from cell to cell. The
meshwork of hyphae that absorbs nutrients is called a mycelium (pl. mycelia).

Structure of Fungi

- Almost all the fungi have a lamentous structure except yeast the cells.
- They can be either single-celled or multicellular organism.

11 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

- Fungi consist of long thread-like structures known as hyphae. These hyphae together form a
mesh-like structure called mycelium.
- Fungi possess a cell wall which is made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
- The cell wall comprises of protoplast which is differentiated into other cell parts such as cell
membrane, cytoplasm, cell organelles and nuclei.
- The nucleus is dense, clear, with chromatin threads. The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear
membrane.
Classification of Fungi
Kingdom Fungi is classified based on different modes. The different classification of fungi are as
follows: Based on Mode of nutrition
On the basis of nutrition, kingdom fungi can be classified into the following groups.
Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by feeding on dead organic substances.
Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium, and Aspergillus.
Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by living on other living organisms (plants or
animals) and absorb nutrients from their host. Examples: Taphrina, and Puccinia.
Symbiotic – These fungi live by having an interdependent relationship association with other
species in which both are mutually benefits. Examples: Lichens and mycorrhiza. Lichens are the
symbiotic association between algae and fungi. Here both algae and fungi are mutually benefits
as fungi provide shelter for algae and in reverse algae synthesis carbohydrates for fungi.
Based on Spore Formation
Kingdom Fungi is classified into the following based on the formation of spores:

ZYGOMYCETES
These are formed by the fusion of two different cells. The sexual spores are known as
zygospores while the asexual spores are known as sporangiospores. The hyphae are without the
septa.
There are about 600 species of bread molds, e.g., Rhizopus. They live in soil and on decaying
plants; most are saprobes, and a few are parasitic. The hyphae lack cross walls. Examine the live
Rhizopus mycelia on nutrient agar in petri dishes; the black structures are sporangiophores.
In asexual reproduction special hyphae called sporangiophores bear sporangia (s.
sporangium) aloft; spores develop inside by mitosis, and are dispersed.

12 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Rhizopus nigricans: zygotes, In sexual reproduction special hyphae of opposite mating types
touch, their ends swell, and the two cytoplasms intermingle. Nuclei from both parents enter this
joint bulge, and a thick-walled zygospore (brown and rough) develops. Nuclei fuse (diploid
cell), meiosis occurs, and haploid spores are formed and dispersed.

ASCOMYCETES
They can be coprophilous, decomposers, parasitic or saprophytic. The sexual spores are called
ascospores. Asexual reproduction occurs by conidiospores.
The Ascomycota or sac fungi are a diverse group with huge numbers of species. Examples
include yeasts (e.g., Saccharomyces) , edible truffles, morels, Dutch elm disease, and ergot on
rye, which is poisonous to humans. They live in soil and on decaying organisms; many are plant
pathogens. They play an essential ecological role, because they attack and digest resistant
molecules such as cellulose and lignin of plants and collagen of animals. Reproduction: All
Ascomycota can reproduce asexually. Yeast may simply divide by budding (slide:
Saccharomyces: budding).

In sexual reproduction compatible mating types conjugate, a capsule called an ascus forms.
Within it nuclei fuse and the cell becomes a diploid zygote; meiosis produces four haploid
nuclei; a protective spore wall forms around each nucleus and some cytoplasm; these ascospores
are released and are transported long distances, usually by wind. Be aware that the cell size of
yeast is so tiny that they can be mistaken for prokaryotes, except they have organelles that you
should be able to see.
Lichen are also found here

13 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

BASIDIOMYCETES
Mushrooms are the most commonly found basidiomycetes and mostly live as parasites. Sexual
reproduction occurs by basidiospores. Asexual reproduction occurs by conidia, budding or
fragmentation. Example Agaricus, the club fungi: mushrooms, e.g., Coprinus, shelf fungi,
stinkhorns, puffballs, rusts, and smuts. Some species are hallucinogenic, and many are toxic.
They live in soil, on decaying plants; symbiotic or pathogenic on plants, some are animal
parasites. Reproduction: In sexual reproduction hyphae of opposite mating types conjugate, and
ultimately spores are formed. The mushroom form of fruiting body is called a basidiocarp and
consists of a stem and cap. The cap has radial gills; the spore producing cells on the sides of the
gills are called basidia (s. basidium) and the spores are called basidiospores.

DEUTEROMYCETES
They are otherwise called imperfect fungi as they do not follow the regular reproduction cycle as
the other fungi. They do not reproduce sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by conidia.
Example – Trichoderma. Penicillium, ringworm, and athlete's foot
'

Reproduction in Fungi

14 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. The sexual mode of reproduction is
referred to as teleomorph and the asexual mode of reproduction is referred to as anamorph.
Vegetative reproduction – By budding, fusion, and fragmentation
Asexual reproduction – This takes place with the help of spores called conidia or zoospores or
sporangiospores
Sexual reproduction – ascospores, basidiospores, and oospores
The conventional mode of sexual reproduction is not always observed in the kingdom Fungi. In
some fungi, the fusion of two haploid hyphae does not result in the formation of a diploid cell. In
such cases, there appears an intermediate stage called the dikaryophase. This stage is followed by
the formation of diploid cells.

KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANTS)

Plants are multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs having cellulosic cell walls.
All are embryophytes.

Kingdom Plantae includes green, brown and red algae, liverworts, mosses, ferns and seed plants
with or without flowers.
Diagnostic features of the Kingdom Plantae
- Eukaryotic
- Multicellular with walled and frequently vacuolated eukaryotic cells.
- Photosynthetic/autotrophic. These contain photosynthetic pigment in plastids. The
principle mode of nutrition is photosynthesis. Have chloroplasts containing
chlorophyll a and b
- Have cellulose cell walls
- Non-motile. They are primarily non-motile and live anchored to a substrate
- Store carbohydrate as starch
- Reproduce sexually and asexually. Reproduction is primarily asexual or sexual.
The reproductive organs are multicellular. They form a multicellular embryo during
development from the zygote. Algae lack the embryo stage
- Have vascular system or undeveloped vascular tissue
- Mainly terrestrial
- Some have true roots, leaves and roots
- Alteration of generations. The life cycle consists of alternating haploid gametophyte and
diploid sporophyte generation. This phenomenon is called the alternation of generation.

Plantae are classified as follows:

Kingdom Plantae (Embryophyta) is classified into the following divisions:
1. Bryophytes: Amphibians of plant kingdom, non-vascular.
2. Pteridophytes: True root, stem and leaves, vascular tissue present.

15 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

3. Gymnosperm: naked seeded plants. Seed not enclosed in ovary.

4. Angiosperm: seeds enclosed in ovary wall

BRYOPHYTA (BRYOPHYTES)
Bryophytes are amphibians of plant kingdom as they complete their life cycle in both water and on
land. They mainly grow in damp, shady places. They are embryophytes that do not have vascular
tissues (neither xylem nor phloem). No true leaves and roots. Sex organs are always surrounded
by one or several layers of sterile cells.
There are three main types of bryophytes
- Flat, ribbon like – Liverworts (Marchantia) Fig. 3.1(a)
- Small leafy stems – Mosses (Funaria) Fig. 3.1(b)

- Flat thalloid – Hornworts or Anthoceros

Fig 3.1(a) Liverworts (Marchantia) Fig 3.1(b) Moss plant (Funaria)

In all types of bryophytes, the main plant body is gametophyte, larger and more persistent and
photosynthetically active which bears the sex organs. In mosses, the gametophytic plant body is a
leafy stem called ‘gametophore’ but in liverworts and hornworts plant body is usually a thallus
that is ribbon-like or heart-shaped and bilaterally symmetrical. The body is without roots, stems
and leaves. The plants are anchored to soil by rhizoids, unicellular in liverworts and hornworts and
multicellullar in mosses. Rhizoids act as anchorage and also help in absorption of water from the
substratum. The male sex organs are antheridia and female sex organs are archegonia. The
gametes are produced in the sex organs. Male and female gametes fuse to give rise to a zygote

16 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

which develops into a sporophyte. Sporophyte remains attached to gametophyte and depends on
it for food and minerals. Sporogenous tissue in the sporophyte undergoes meiosis to produce
haploid spores. The spores germinate to give rise to a gametophyte again.
Gametophyte (Undergoes Mitosis): Gamete producing phase of plants
Sporophyte (Undergoes Meiosis): Spore producing phase of plants
In all three types of bryophytes, the life cycle shows Alternation of generations.

Comparison of Gametophytic and sporophytic phase

Gametophytic phase Sporophytic phase
1. Haploid phase Diploid phase
2. Has sex organs Has spore producing structure
3. Produces gametes Produces spores
4. Gametes are produced by Spores are produced by
mitosis meiosis
5. Dominant phase occupies Short lived phase
most of the life period

FILICINOPHYTA (PTERIDOPHYTE)
A fern plant is a pteridophyte.

A garden fern plants

17 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

1. Ferns are lower vascular plants. They contain vascular tissue. Vascular tissue is made up
of xylem and phloem which helps in conduction of water and nutrients to all parts of the plant
body. Pteridophytes are usually found in damp, shady places or in gardens, on the hills where
temperature is low.
2. The main plant body represents a sporophytic (diploid) generation and has roots which
penetrate the soil and absorb water.
3. The leaves (fronds) of sporophyte grow on thick horizontal underground stem or rhizome
which bears adventitious roots. The young leaves and the base of fronds are covered by dry brown
scales (remanta).
4. The young leaves show characteristic tightly coiled structure (see Fig. 3.2a). The axis of
the leaves is called rachis and leaflets on both sides of rachis are called pinnae. The division of
pinnae are known as pinnules.
5. On the under surface of the leaves, develop spore producing bodies called Sporangia. The
sporogenous tissue in the sporangia undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores.
6. The spores germinate into an independent small thallus like body, the gametophyte called
prothallus. The prothallus bears antheridia and archegonia which produce male gametes and
female gametes. The gametes fuse and zygote develops into a diploid sporophyte.
7. The young embryo absorbs nutrients from the gametophyte until its roots and leaves are
formed. The gametophyte then dies.
8. Gametophyte grows independent of sporophyte, and it lives for a short period of time but
a new sporophyte is temporarily dependent upon a tiny gametophyte.

CONIFEROPHYTA (GYMSOSPERMAE)
Together with flowering plants Angiosperms, the Gymnosperms form the group Spermatophyta
(sperma; seed, phyte; plant) i.e. seed producing plants. They both produces two types of spores
(heterosporous). The two types are microspores (pollen grains) and mega spores (embryo sac)
The gymnospermae bear naked ovules on flat scale leaves called ovuliferous scales not enclosed
in carpels (ovary). The ovuliferous scales are arranged in cones.

The gymnosperms originated much earlier than angiosperms. However, most of the members of
this group have now become extinct and only few living forms are known today.

Characteristics features
- The adult plant (sporophyte) is tall, woody, perennial tree or shrub mostly evergreen. The stem
is usually branched, but rarely unbranched as in Cycas.
- Leaves may be simple (as in Pinus) or compound (as in Cycas).
- Leaves may be dimorphic or of one kind only. Foliage leaves are large green pinnately
compound, needle-like and grow on dwarf shoot as in Pinus and not on the main trunk as in a
Cycas. Scale leaves are brown and simple.
- Vascular bundles in stem are arranged in a ring and show secondary growth.

18 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

- Gymnosperms bear cones which are usually unisexual (either male or female
- Pollen grains are haploid produced in microsporangia of male cone. Each pollen grain has two
large sacs to help in the dispersal. Pollen grains produce two male gametes
- Ovules are not enclosed in ovary as in Angiosperms, but are borne naked on leafy
megasporophylls of female cone, so the term gymnosperms or ‘naked seeds’ for this group.
Ovules are produced side by side, inside which female gamete or egg is produced. Male
gamete fuses with female gamete in the ovule. The fertilized ovule then develops into a seed
(winged in case of pinus).
- Some common Gymnosperms are Pine (Pinus) ,Red Wood (Sequoia) ,Juniper ,Cedar
- Many gymnosperms yield timber, resins, turpentine, and many other products like the dry
fruit chilgoza.

ANGIOSPERMAE
The angiosperms, or flowering plants, constitute the most dominant and ubiquitous vascular
plants of present day flora. The term angiosperm means 'enclosed seed' because the ovules or
potential seeds are enclosed within a hollow ovary. In this respect they are considered most
highly evolved and advanced as compared with the naked seeded gymnosperms. Our most
familiar plants like pea, mango, coconut, wheat and rice come under the group called
Angiosperms.
Characteristic features
- Angiospermous plants grow in almost every kind of habitats.
- The angiospermous leaves show reticulate or parallel venation forming areoles. The libriform
fibres are present in the xylem and the companion cells are present in the phloem. The true
vessels are present in the xylem of angiosperms.
- The angiosperms produce flowers which normally consist of 4 whorls of appendages’ – the
two outer accessory and reproductive structure such as sepals and petals and the two inner
essential parts – stamens and carpels.
- The stamens (microsporophylls) are bilaterally symmetrical. Each stamen consists of a lament
and an anther.
- The anthers produce tectate pollen grains with exine differentiated into rod-like columellae
covered by a tectum.
- In angiosperms, the insects and animals also act as pollinating agents. For this purpose the
flowers possess bright and showy petals, edible pollen and nectar.
- The carpels (megasporophylls) are rolled and partly sterile so that they enclose the ovules
within a hollow ovary that is connected with the stigma and style.
- The female gametophyte is highly reduced and consists of single egg cell, two synergids, three
antipodals and two polar nuclei. The archegonia are absent.
- The most characteristic feature of angiosperms is double fertilization. (i) The male gamete
fuses with the egg producing diploid zygote that develops into embryo or new sporophyte. (ii)
Another male gamete fuses with the polar nuclei (triple fusion) resulting in the formation of
triploid endosperm.
- After fertilization, the ovules ripens into seeds and ovary ripens into fruits.

19 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

The parts of an angiosperm plant

The angiosperms are divided into two groups or classes: Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.
Dicot plants have two cotyledons in seeds whereas Monocots have only one cotyledon within
seeds.

Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. Seeds naked as not enclosed in ovary Seeds enclosed in fruit (a mature ovary)

2. Bears cones where spores (gametes) Bears flowers where reproductive

develop. spores (gametes) develop
3. Xylem vessels usually absent. Xylem has both vessels as well as tracheids.

Adaptation of seed bearing plants to life on land

- The gametophyte generation is greatly reduced. It is always protected in a sporophyte,
which is well adapted for life on land, and is totally dependent on the sporophyte. In
other plants the gametophyte is susceptible to drying out
- Fertilization is not dependent on water. The male gametes are non-motile and carried
within pollen grains dispersed by wind or insects. Final transfer of the male gametes to
the female gametes after pollination is by means of pollen tubes
- The fertilized ovule (seed) is retained for some time on the parent sporophyte from which
it obtains protection and food before dispersal

20 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

- Many seed plants show secondary growth with production of large amounts of wood.
This provides support. Such plants become trees or shrubs and are able to complete
effectively for light and other resources
- True roots enable water in the soil to be reached
- The plant is protected from desiccation by an epidermis with a waterproof cuticle
- The epidermis of aerial parts, particularly leaves, has many small holes, called stomata,
which allow gaseous exchange between plant and atmosphere

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Diagnostic features of the kingdom Animaliae
- Eukaryotic
- Multicellular
- Non photosynthetic
- Heterotrophic
- No cellulose cell walls
- Store carbohydrate as glycogen
- No chlorophyll
- Motile
- Have nervous system (C.N.S) and therefore they show increased sensitivity
- have endocrine system for homeostasis
- reproduce sexually or asexually
- Body divided into head, abdomen and limbs
- All have an alimentary canal
- have muscles and skeletal systems for maintaining body shape, protection and to provide
support for inner structures
- have a transport system with a transport medium usually blood pumped around the body in
vessels by the heart
- Bilateral symmetry except cnidarians and echinoderms
- Triploblastic except cnidarians
- some are segmented e.g annelids and arthropods

Basis of classification of animals

Organization, symmetry, body cavity, number of embryonic cell layers and presence or absence of
notochord are the features used for distinguishing broad categories of animals.

Organization: Bodies of animals are multicellular. But cells may or may not be organized into
tissues and organ systems. Animals such as sponges are aggregates of cells. They are at cellular
level of organization. Cnidarians have groups of cells performing specialized functions. They are
at tissue level of organization. All other animals have organs and systems for performing body
functions. They are at organ system grade.

21 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Symmetry: means dividing the body into equal and identical parts. Sponges are asymmetrical.
Cnidarians and Echinoderm larvae are radially symmetrical. All other animals are bilaterally
symmetrical.

Body Cavity or Coelom: is a cavity between body wall and food canal. It is not present in
Acoelomates (a = no, coelom = body cavity) and present in Eucoelomates (eu = true). Pseudo
coelom (pseudo = false) is not a true body cavity. It is found in round worms.

Embryonic layers: Three layers of cells, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm in the embryo
(germinal layers) gives rise to parts of the body of animals. Sponges and Cnidarians do not have
mesoderm in their embryos. They have two germinal layers ectoderm and endoderm (diploblastic).
Others have three germinal layers (triploblastic).
Notochord: is a solid rod found in embryonic stage or adults of some animals which are grouped
as phylum chordate. All animal groups lacking notochord are termed, non-chordates.

Major phyla included in kingdom Animalia

PHYLUM PORIFERA (Includes sponges)

Main Characters:
- Have a porous body. Body with many pores, canals or chambers through which water flows
called the canal system. Pores on the bodies create a canal system which helps in the
circulation of substances.
- Large aperture called osculum at the upper end.
- Body encloses a large cavity spongocoel.
- Not differentiated into head and tail; don’t have a well-developed organ or organ system. No
organs, movable parts or appendages. Different kinds of cells perform different functions.
- Non-motile, multicellular organisms with the hard outer skeleton.
- Usually with an internal skeleton of calcareous or silicious spicules, or of spongin fibres, or
both.
- Reproduction asexual by budding; also sexual.
- Almost all marine.

22 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

PHYLUM CNIDARIA or Coelenterata

Main Characters:
- Body with no head and no segmentation.
- Body wall two layered: external epidermis and inner gastrodermis, jelly like non-cellular
mesogloea in between.
- Cnidoblasts (stinging cells) present, helps to catch prey (carnivorous)
- Skeleton calcareous, horny or none.
- Asexual reproduction by budding in the sessile stage (polyp)and asexual reproduction in
free swimming stage (medusa)
- Radial symmetry
- All marine, except hydra (found in fresh water)
- Either fixed like hydra, sea-anemones and corals, or free floating like the jellyfish
- Examples Includes hydroids, jelly fishes, sea anemone, corals

23 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (Flat worms)

Main Characters:
- Dorsoventrally body.
- Complex and have differentiated body structure.
- Tissues are differentiated from three layers of cells and are triploblastic.
- Don’t have true internal cavity or coelom.
- Have bilateral symmetry.
- Elongated, soft bodied, flatworms without segmentation
- Suckers or hooks or both for attachment to the body of the host
- Sexes usually united, mostly sexual reproduction, with asexual reproduction in some
- Alimentary has only one opening, the mouth. In some forms e.g. tapeworms there is no
alimentary canal at all
- A few are free-living but mostly parasites.
Examples: Planaria (free living), taenia (tapeworm) is a parasite Fasciola live fluke) is a parasite
of sheep liver

24 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

PHYLUM NEMATODA (Aschehelminthes)

Main characters:
- Nematodes have a cylindrical body. Elongated cylindrical
round body
- Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
- Body cavity is a pseudocoelom (false body cavity)
- mouth and Alimentary canal opens at the two ends, anus.
- Sexes separate, males are smaller than females. (Fig 3.10)
- Mostly parasitic in animals but some live freely in the soil.
- common Ascaris is a round worm, parasitic in the
intestine of humans.
- Examples. – Round worms, thread worms

PHYLUM ANNELIDA

Main characters:
- Have a segmented cylindrical body.
- The body is differentiated into head and tail.
- Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
- Elongated, coelomate (true body cavity) worm-like animals.
- Body provided with setae or parapodia for locomotion.
- Well-developed digestive system with the alimentary canal open at both ends.
- Excretory organs called nephridia.
- Sexes united (as in earthworm) or separate (as in Neris).
- Regeneration quite frequent.
- Aquatic, some terrestrial animals, some living in tubes and some even parasitic.
Examples: Nereis, Earthworms like Pheretima (free living in soil), Hirudinaria (leech)
(parasitic on cattle)

25 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

Main Characters:
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- Have an open circulatory system, but don’t have differentiated blood vessels
- Segmented body, can be differentiated into head, thorax and abdomen
- Head and thorax often fused to form cephalothorax
- Jointed legs for locomotion, one pair each on some or all body segments
- Exoskeleton of chitinous cuticle, shed at intervals (molting)
- Sexes usually separate.
- Example includes – Spiders, butteries, and mosquitoes Arthropods

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

26 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

These animals have a soft, unsegmented body, with a hard, calcareous shell to protect the soft
body, with a hard, calcareous shell to protect the soft body. They have a muscular foot to help
locomotion and also to act as a weapon in some cases. Examples: snails, slugs, oysters, mussels,
clams, squids, and octopuses (Fig. 3.13).

Main Characters.
- Unsegmented soft bodied animals terrestrial or aquatic,
- Exoskeleton in the form of a shell. When present shell is usually univalved or bivalved;
internal shell in some.
- Sexes separate or united.
- Limbs are present. Have a muscular foot for locomotion.
- Bilaterally, symmetrical and triploblastic.
- Well-developed organ and organ system.
- Open circulatory system.
- Examples. Apply snail (Pila) , Freshwater mussel (Unio) , Cuttlefish (Sepia) slugs,
Octopus

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
Main Characteristics:
- Marine animals, with unsegmented body.
- Head absent, body surface marked with 5 radiating areas.
- Have true coelom and triploblastic.
- Endoskeleton of dermal calcareous ossicles with spines.
- Movement by tube feet.
- Sexes usually separate.
- Regeneration of lost parts a peculiarity.
- Adults are radially symmetrical, but the larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
Examples- Sea urchins, star fishes, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers

27 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

PHYLUM CHORDATA

Main Characters:
- Notochord present at some stage of life, in most cases replaced by backbone. The notochord
is a long supporting structure that separates the nervous tissues from the gut. It runs along the
back of an animal and is a place for muscle attachment that helps in movement.
- Dorsal tubular nerve cord.
- Gill slits present at some stage of life. (larval or adult)
- Body with a head and trunk and two pairs of appendages
- Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
- Have true coelom
- Examples humans, etc.

Nb. The coelom of Annelids, Arthropods and Mollusca is made from mesodermal cells while the
coelom of Echinodermata and chordata is made from endodermal cells

Biological significance of coelom

- It separates the gut from the body wall and therefore muscular movements of the body wall
associated with locomotion can be separated from muscular movement of the
gut(peristalsis)
- It provides a cavity in which organs can grow, develop and function independently of other
organs
- In annelids it acts as a hydrostatic skeleton

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS

IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM FUNGI

28 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Biological Insecticides - Fungi are animal pathogens. Thus they help in controlling the
population of pests. These fungi do not infect plants and animals. They attack specically to some
insects. The fungus Beauveria bassiana is a pesticide that is being tested to control the spread of
emerald ash borer.
Reusing - These microbes along with bacteria bring about recycling of matter by decomposing
dead matter of plants and excreta of animals in the soil, hence the reuse enriches the soil to make
it fertile. The absence of activities of fungi can have an adverse effect on this on-going process
by continuous assembly and piling of debris.
Importance in Medicine - Antibiotics eg Penicillin and Streptomycin produced by
actinomycetes and moulds inhibits the growth of other microbes.Apart from curing diseases,
antibiotics are also used fed to animals for speedy growth and to improve meat quality.
Antibiotics are used to preserve freshly produced meat for longer durations.
Importance in Agriculture - Fungi are important in the process of humus formation as it brings
about the degeneration of the plant and animal matter.
They are successively used in biological control of pests. Plant pests are used as insecticides to
control activities of insects. For example – Empausa sepulchralis, Cordyceps melonhae.
Fungi are also used in agricultural research. Some species of fungi are used in the detection of
certain elements such as Copper and Arsenic in soil and in the production of enzymes
The fungi live in a symbiotic relationship with the plant roots known as mycorrhiza. These are
essential to enhance the productivity of farmland. 80-90% of trees could not survive without the
fungal partner in the root system.
Importance in Food industry - Some fungi are used in food processing while some are directly
consumed. For example – Mushrooms, which are rich in proteins and minerals and low in fat.
Fungi constitute the basis in the baking and brewing industry. They bring about fermentation of
sugar by an enzyme called zymase producing alcohol which is used to make wine.
Carbon dioxide- a byproduct in the process, is used as dry ice and also in the baking industry to
make the dough (rising and lightening of dough).
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)is an important ingredient in bread, a staple food of humans for
several years.

IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM PROTISTA - ALGAE

Provide food for fish as part of phytoplankton (organisms floating on the water – surface).These
are rich sources of vitamins A and E.
forms Many marine iodine, potassium and other important – sources are of minerals.
Blue-green algae increase the soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

29 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

they are atmospheric source of natural fix can – nitrogen, algae Some so a fertilizer for
the plants.
A group of algae (diatoms) deposit silica in their walls. After their death these algae are
preserved as fossils. Their deposits in large amounts are used as filters, and for lining of
furnaces.

IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM MONERA (PROKARYOTES)

They harm us by causing many diseases. On the other hand some bacteria are very useful.
Diseases Caused By Bacteria
Name of Bacterium Diseases Caused
1. Vibrio cholerae Cholera
2. Salmonella typhi Typhoid
3. Clostridium tetani Tetanus
4. Corynebacterium diptheriae Diphtheria
5. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis

Beneficial Activities of Bacteria

Name of bacterium Activities
Rhizobium Found in roots of legumes, (Peas, grams, Pulses etc) fixes
atmospheric nitrogen as ammonia, which is then converted
into useful amino acid.
Azotobacter Makes the soil fertile. It fixes atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.

Streptomycetes Produces Streptomycin antibiotic.

Lactobacillus Ferments lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid This helps in
setting of milk into curd.

Methanogenic bacteria Sewage treatment

Streptococcus and Bacillus Ferment food products
Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Help in digestion and improving the body’s immunity system
Firmicutes, Proteobacteria

Prokaryotes play important role in industry. Some of these are:

1. Role in food industry: Bacteria play important role in fermentation. So they are used for
manufacturing butter, yogurt, cheese, cakes and bear.

30 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

2. Role in pharmaceutical industry: Many antibiotics are obtained from bacteria. Some of these
antibiotics are streptomycin, Terramycin etc. Recombinant bacteria are used to synthesize
insulin, growth factors and other pharmaceutical products.
3. Role in energy production: The entire world is facing the problem of shortage of energy.
Bacteria are used to produce biogas. Biogas is used as alternative resource of energy.
4. Role in agriculture: Bacteria are used as pesticides for biological control. It is most effective
and cheap method of controlling pests.
5. Role in Dairy farms: Bacteria are used to prepare silage for dairy animals. Silage is used as
fodder.
6. Role in mining industry: Many bacteria are used for the extraction of metals from mine. Now
recombinant bacteria have been prepared. They selectivity extract metals from raw ore.
7. Role in textile industry: Some bacteria like clostridium are used for retting of hemps, jute and
flax. These bacteria separate the fibers. These fibers are used for making clothes and ropes.
8. Leather industry: Bacteria are used for preparing commercial leather.
9. Role in tobacco industry: Bacteria are used for drying tobacco leaves. These leaves are used
for preparing cigarettes.
10. Role in disposal of wastes: Bacteria are natural decomposer. They degrade the industrial and
domestic wastes. Some transgenic bacteria are used as biofilter.
11. Role in bioremediation: The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is
remarkable. This ability is used in waste processing and bioremediation. Bacteria capable of
digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum. Therefore, they are often used to clean up oil spills.
Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes.
12. Role in biological control: “Bacteria can also be used in the place of pesticides in the
biological pest control. The commonly used bacteria for biological control are
Bacillus ilturingiensis (also called BT).. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are
regarded as environmentally friendly. It has little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators
and most other beneficial insects.
13. Uses in research: Bacteria are extensively used in molecular biology, genetics and
biochemistry.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

Plants are extremely important in the lives of people throughout the world. People depend upon
plants to satisfy such basic human needs as food, clothing, shelter, and health care. These needs
are growing rapidly because of a growing world population, increasing incomes, and
urbanization .

31 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

Plants provide food directly, of course, and also feed livestock that is then consumed itself. In
addition, plants provide the raw materials for many types of pharmaceuticals, as well as tobacco,
coee, alcohol, and other drugs. The ber industry depends heavily on the products of cotton, and
the lumber products industry relies on wood from a wide variety of trees (wood fuel is used
primarily in rural areas).

Economic importance byophites

Soil conservation: Mosses grow in dense mats over the soil surface. They bind the soil particles
and prevent soil erosion by running water.

Formation of soil: Mosses along with lichens play a very important role in the formation of soil
over the bare rocky surface. They grow on rocks and add organic matter to the substratum after
their death. It makes the rock surface suitable for the growth of higher plants.

Peat: Sphagnum plants grow as semiaquatic or submerged in acidic marshes. The older portions of
plants die but do not decay due to peculiar germicidal properties. Constantly increasing mass of
dead remains accumulate year after year. These dead remains are slowly compressed and become
hardened due to weight and forms a compact dark colored peat rich in carbon.

Other uses: Certain bryophytes are used to obtain a number of antibiotic substances. Some
bryophytes have important medicinal uses. For example – The tea prepared from Polytrichum
commune is used to dissolve kidney and gall bladder stones. The bryophytes are pioneers of
vegetation, i.e. they are the first ones to grow on various habitats like rock, lava, sand, water etc
and act as soil binders. The mosses hold water better than the soil thus improve the microhabitat
for seeds of other plants to grow. They are the source of food for fish and birds and for nesting
materials for birds.

THE IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Ecological Importance - Every life form plays an important role in the ecological balance of the
earth. For example, carnivores are a natural way of controlling population of herbivores in
forests and grasslands. If there were no carnivores, then the population of these herbivores would
grow so much they could clear considerable area of forests and grasslands in their bid to feed
themselves. Similarly, scavengers keep the earth clean of all the decaying carcass that would
otherwise be a feast for microorganisms.
Economic Importance - The silkworm belongs to the phylum arthropoda of the animal
kingdom. Silk from silkworm (and also artificial fibers in some cases) support the silk industry.
The dairy industry, wool industry, leather and tanning industry and the fishing industry are some

32 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]

 TOPIC 12 - BIODIVERSITY

sectors that not only provide employment to millions but also fulfill a number of needs of human
beings.
Nutritional Importance - Meat is an important source of proteins, which are the building blocks
of our body. Milk from cow is an important source of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and
minerals like calcium, potassium, potassium and magnesium. Honey, which is produced by bees,
not only taste good, but also has high nutritional value.
Pollinators and Food Crops - Berkeley, bees, bats and birds are important pollinators that are
responsible for the pollination of around 35 percent of crops that feed the entire human
population. Without these pollinators, the human race would run into an acute food shortage.
Other Uses
Medical research is one field in which animals play important role. Dogs, monkeys and mice
have been used as animal models in the discovery of insulin, polio vaccine and rabies vaccine
respectively. Cosmetics are also tested on certain animals before they are released in the market.
Such use of animals in research may seem cruel. Nevertheless, animals have played an important
role in the development of drugs and lines of treatment for human beings, and steps are being
taken to curb intentional cruelty towards animals. Certain animals also act as companions for
human beings with disabilities. Dogs top that list as service animals for the blind, old and
individuals with other physical challenges.

33 A LEVEL BIOLOGY [email protected]