Technical University of Mombasa

ECV 4311: ENGINEERING MATERIALS I

By: Ms. Esther Njoki

METALS AND METAL ALLOYS

Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are grouped into two classes

a) Ferrous alloys
b) Nonferrous alloys

Ferrous alloys

These are alloys in which iron is the principal constituent and include steels and cast
irons. Ferrous alloys are produced in large quantities than any other metal type
because of the following reasons:

1. Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s

crust
2. Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical
extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques
3. Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a
wide range of mechanical and physical properties.

The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.

Below is a classification scheme for ferrous alloys.

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Steel

Steels are iron–carbon alloys that contain significant concentrations of other alloying
elements. Steels may be classified as follows depending on the carbon concentration
they contain:

a) Low-carbon steel
b) Medium-carbon steel
c) High-carbon steel

Low-Carbon Steels

These are the most commonly produced type of steel. They generally contain less
than about 0.25 wt% carbon. These alloys are relatively soft and weak, but have good
ductility and toughness. In addition, they are machinable, weldable, and, of all
steels, are the least expensive to produce. Typical applications include automobile
body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets
that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.

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Medium-Carbon Steels

The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60
wt%. These alloys may be heat treated to improve their mechanical properties. These
heat-treated alloys are stronger than low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility
and toughness. Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts,
and high-strength structural components which require high strength, wear
resistance, and toughness.

High-Carbon Steels

These have carbon contents of between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%. They are the hardest,
strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are wear resistant and
capable of holding a sharp cutting edge. They are utilized as cutting tools and dies
for forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades,
springs, and high-strength wire.

Stainless Steels

The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting). Their predominant
alloying element is chromium with a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr. Corrosion
resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions. Stainless
steels are divided into three classes:

a) Martensitic stainless steels

b) Ferritic stainless steels
c) Austenitic stainless steels

The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant because of the high
chromium contents and also the nickel additions and they are produced in the
largest quantities. Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic while the
austenitic stainless steels are not.

Cast iron

These are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C
and other alloying elements. Cast irons become completely liquid at temperatures
between approximately 1150 and 1300°C (2100 and 2350°F), which is considerably

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lower than for steels. Thus, they are easily melted and amenable to casting.
Furthermore, some cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the most convenient
fabrication technique. The most common cast iron types are gray, nodular, white,
and malleable cast iron.

Nonferrous Alloys

Alloy systems are classified either according to the base metal or according to the
specific characteristic that a group of alloys share. A distinction is made between cast
and wrought alloys. Alloys that are so brittle that forming or shaping by appreciable
deformation is not possible ordinarily are cast; these are classified as cast alloys. On
the other hand, those that are amenable to mechanical deformation are termed
wrought alloys.

Copper and its alloys

Unalloyed copper is soft and ductile and hence difficult to machine. It is highly
resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the atmosphere, seawater,
and some industrial chemicals. The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties
of copper may be improved by alloying. The most common copper alloys are brasses
in which zinc is the predominant alloying element. Common uses for brass alloys
include jewelry, cartridge casings, automotive radiators, musical instruments,
electronic packaging, and coins. The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other
elements, including tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel. These alloys are stronger than
the brasses and have a high degree of corrosion resistance. They are utilized when in
addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are required.

Aluminum and its alloys

Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm3 as
compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, a
resistance to corrosion and high ductility which makes them are easily formed. The
chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature [660°C (1220°F)], which
restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used. The mechanical strength
of aluminum may be enhanced by alloying. Principal alloying elements include
copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc.

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Magnesium and its alloys

Magnesium has the lowest density (1.7 g/cm 3) of all the structural metals. It is used
where light weight is an important consideration e.g., in aircraft components. At
room temperature magnesium and its alloys are difficult to deform and most
fabrication is by casting or hot working at temperatures between 200 and 350°C (400
and 650°F). Magnesium has a moderately low melting temperature [651°C (1204°F)].
Magnesium alloys are relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in
marine environments. Corrosion or oxidation resistance is however reasonably good
in the normal atmosphere. Aluminum, zinc, and manganese are major magnesium
alloying elements. Magnesium is used in hand-held devices (e.g., chain saws, power
tools, hedge clippers), in automobiles (e.g., steering wheels, seat frames), and in
audio-video-computer-communications equipment (e.g., laptop computers,
camcorders, TV sets, cellular telephones).

Titanium and its alloys

Titanium has a relatively low density (4.5 g/cm 3) and a high melting point [1668°C
(3035°F)]. Titanium alloys are extremely strong with strengths as high as 1400 MPa
(200,000 psi). Titanium alloys are highly ductile and easily forged and machined. The
major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other materials at elevated
temperatures. The corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is
extremely high and are immune to air, marine, and a variety of industrial
environments. They are commonly used in airplane structures, space vehicles,
surgical implants, and in the petroleum and chemical industries.

The refractory metals

Metals that have extremely high melting temperatures are classified as the refractory
metals. They include niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and tantalum
(Ta). Melting temperatures range between 2468°C (4474°F) for niobium and 3410°C
(6170°F) for tungsten which is the highest melting temperature of any metal.
Interatomic bonding in these metals is extremely strong, hence the high melting
temperatures. They have large elastic moduli and high strengths and hardnesses at
room as well as elevated temperatures. The uses of these metals include alloying

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stainless steel with tantalum and molybdenum to improve its corrosion resistance.
Molybdenum alloys are used for extrusion dies and structural parts in space
vehicles. Radiant light filaments, x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes are made from
tungsten alloys.

Fabrication of Metals
Metal fabrication techniques can be classified as shown below:

Forming operations

Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by
plastic deformation. Forming operations include:

a) Forging
b) Rolling
c) Extrusion
d) Drawing

Forging

Forging is mechanically working or deforming a piece of hot metal. This is done by

the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing. Forgings are
classified as either closed or open die. For closed die, a force is brought to bear on
two or more die halves having the finished shape such that the metal is deformed in
the cavity between them. For open die, two dies having simple geometric shapes
(e.g., parallel flat, semicircular) are employed, normally on large work-pieces.

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Wrenches, automotive crankshafts, and piston connecting rods are formed using this
technique.

Rolling

This is the most widely used deformation process and consists of passing a piece of
metal between two rolls which results in a reduction in thickness due to compressive
stresses exerted by the rolls.

Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil metal with a
high-quality surface finish. Circular shapes, as well as I-beams and railroad rails, are
fabricated using grooved rolls.

Extrusion

In this method, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force
that is applied to a ram. The extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and

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cross-sectional area. Extrusion products include rods and tubes. Extrusion can ether
be performed as direct or indirect extrusion.

Drawing

Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by
means of a tensile force that is applied on the exit side. A reduction in cross section
results, with a corresponding increase in length. Rods, wires, and tubes can be
fabricated in this manner.

Casting

Casting is a fabrication process in which a completely molten metal is poured into a

mold cavity having the desired shape. Upon solidification, the metal assumes the
shape of the mold but experiences some shrinkage. Casting techniques are employed
when:

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 1. The finished shape is so large or complicated that any other method would be
impractical
2. A particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold
working would be difficult
3. In comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical.

A number of different casting techniques are commonly employed, including:

a) Sand casting
b) Die casting
c) Investment casting
d) Lost-foam casting
e) Continuous casting

Sand Casting

In this method, ordinary sand is used as the mold material. A two-piece mold is
formed by compacting sand around a pattern that has the shape of the intended
casting. The pattern is then removed and molten metal poured into the cavity. A
gating system is usually incorporated into the mold to expedite the flow of molten
metal into the cavity and to minimize internal casting defects. The metal is allowed
to cool and the mould removed. Sand-cast parts include automotive cylinder blocks,
fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings.

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Die Casting

In this method, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a
relatively high velocity and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained. A two-
piece steel mold or die is used which when clamped together form the desired
shape. When the metal has solidified completely, the mold pieces are opened and the
cast piece is ejected. This technique is used for relatively small pieces and for alloys
of zinc, aluminum, and magnesium, which have low melting temperatures.

Investment Casting

This technique is also known as lost-wax casting. The pattern is made from a wax or
plastic that has a low melting temperature and assembled on a tree with a feeding
and gating system. A fluid refractory ceramic slurry such as plaster of Paris is then
poured around the pattern tree. It sets to form a solid mold or investment. The mold
is then heated, such that the pattern made of wax melts leaving behind a ceramic
mold cavity having the desired shape. Molten metal is then poured into the cavity
and allowed to cool. The ceramic mould is then broken away to reveal the cast
components. The components are removed from the tree and given the desired
finish. This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy, reproduction of
fine detail, and an excellent finish are required—for example, in jewelry and dental
crowns and inlays.

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Lost-form casting

In this technique, pattern shapes are cut from polystyrene sheets and assembled with
glue. Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the mold. As the molten metal
is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern, which vaporizes due to the heat. The
compacted sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the metal assumes the
shape of the mold. In comparison to sand casting, lost-foam casting is a simpler,
quicker, and less expensive. With lost-foam casting, complex geometries and tight
tolerances are possible. Metal alloys that commonly use this technique are cast irons
and aluminum alloys. Applications lost-foam casting include automobile engine
blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine blocks, and electric motor frames.

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Continuous Casting

A refined and molten metal is fed into a broad, open container with one or more
holes in the bottom known as a tundish and cast directly into a continuous strand of
ingots, bars, etc. that may have either a rectangular or circular cross section. A
tundish is used to feed molten metal into an ingot mould to avoid splashing and
give a smoother flow.

An ingot is a block of steel, gold, silver, or other metal, that is cast into an oblong
shape for storage, transportation or further processing. Solidification of the ingots
occurs in a water-cooled die having the desired cross-sectional geometry.

Gold ingot

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Powder Metallurgy
Metals with high melting temperatures are difficult to melt and cast, and fabrication
is done using powder metallurgy. This fabrication technique involves the
compaction of powdered metal followed by a heat treatment to produce a denser
material. This method is suitable for metals having low ductilities. Parts that require
very close dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings and gears) are economically
produced using this technique.

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REFERENCES
Mitchell, B. S. (2003). An Introduction to Materials Engineering and Science. In An
Introduction to Materials Engineering and Science.
https://doi.org/10.1002/0471473359
Wiley, J. (2001). Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering An Interactive.
William D. Callister, D. G. R. (2009). Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering:
An Integrated Approach pp180. 910.

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