Chapter 2

Problem Solving
Solution:
The average velocity in a)0-2 s, b)0-4 s:
Solution:
The average velocity in c)2-4 s, d)4-7 s, e)0-8 s
Solution:
The average velocity in d)4-7 s
Solution:
The average velocity in e)0-8 s
Solution:
Solution:
Solution:
Solution:

(A quardratic equation)
Chapter 3
Vectors
Vectors

Vector quantities
▪ Physical quantities that have both numerical and directional properties
Mathematical operations of vectors in this chapter
▪ Addition
▪ Subtraction

Introduction
Coordinate Systems

Used to describe the position of a point in space

Common coordinate systems are:
▪ Cartesian
▪ Polar

Section 3.1
Cartesian Coordinate System

• Also called rectangular

coordinate system

• x- and y- axes intersect at the

origin

• Points are labeled (x,y)

Section 3.1
Polar Coordinate System

• Origin and reference line are noted

• Point is distance r from the origin in

the direction of angle 

• The reference line is often the x-axis.

• Points are labeled (r,)

Section 3.1
 Polar to Cartesian Coordinates and Vice Versa

• Polar to Cartesian:
Based on forming a right triangle from r and 
x = r cos 
y = r sin 

• Cartesian to Polar:
If the Cartesian coordinates are known:
y
tan =
x

r = x2 + y 2

Section 3.1
Example 3.1
The Cartesian coordinates of a point in
the xy plane are (x,y) = (-3.50, -2.50) m,
as shown in the figure. Find the polar
coordinates of this point.
Solution: From Equation 3.4,
r = x2 + y 2
= (−3.50 m)2 + (−2.50 m)2
= 4.30 m
and from Equation 3.3,
y −2.50 m
tan = = = 0.714
x −3.50 m
 = 216 (signs give quadrant)

Section 3.1
Vectors and Scalars

A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single value with an appropriate

unit and has no direction.
▪ Many are always positive
▪ Some may be positive or negative
▪ Rules for ordinary arithmetic are used to manipulate scalar quantities.
A vector quantity is completely described by a number and appropriate units
plus a direction.

Section 3.2
Vector Example
A particle travels from A to B along the
path shown by the broken line.
▪ This is the distance traveled and is
a scalar.
The displacement is the solid line from
A to B
▪ The displacement is independent
of the path taken between the two
points.
▪ Displacement is a vector.

Section 3.2
Vector Notation

• Text uses bold with arrow to denote a vector: A

• Also used for printing is simple bold print: A

• When dealing with just the magnitude of a vector in

print, an italic letter will be used: A or |A |

• When handwritten, use an arrow: A

Section 3.2
Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors are equal if they have the

same magnitude and the same
direction.
A = B if A = B and they point along
parallel lines
All of the vectors shown are equal.
Allows a vector to be moved to a
position parallel to itself

Section 3.3
Adding Vectors
Vector addition is very different from adding scalar quantities.
While adding vectors, their directions must be taken into account.
Units must be the same

• Graphical Methods (Use scale drawings)

• Algebraic Methods (More convenient)

Section 3.3
Adding Vectors Graphically
Choose a scale.
Draw the first vector, A , with the appropriate length and in the direction
specified, with respect to a coordinate system.
Draw the next vector with the appropriate length and in the direction specified,
with respect to a coordinate system whose origin is the end of vector A and
parallel to the coordinate system used for A .

Section 3.3
Adding Vectors Graphically, cont.
Continue drawing the vectors “tip-to-
tail” or “head-to-tail”.
The resultant is drawn from the origin of
the first vector to the end of the last
vector.
Measure the length of the resultant and
its angle.
Use the scale factor to convert length
to actual magnitude.

Section 3.3
Adding Vectors Graphically, final
When you have many vectors, just
keep repeating the process until all are
included.
The resultant is still drawn from the tail
of the first vector to the tip of the last
vector.

Section 3.3
 Adding Vectors, Rules
When two vectors are added, the sum is
independent of the order of the addition.

▪ This is the Commutative Law of Addition.

A+B =B+ A

Section 3.3
Adding Vectors, Rules cont.

When adding three or more vectors, their sum is independent of the way in which
the individual vectors are grouped.
▪ This is called the Associative Property of Addition.

( ) (
A+ B+C = A+B +C )

Section 3.3
Adding Vectors, Rules final

When adding vectors,

• All of the vectors must have the same units.
• All of the vectors must be of the same type of quantity.
For example, you cannot add a displacement to a velocity.

Section 3.3
Method 2: Parallelogram
The parallelogram method of vector addition is the
same thing as tip-to-tail, but in this case vector B is
moved down so that the vectors are tail-to-tail or
origin-to-origin.
The resultant vector is the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed by two copies of each vector.

Notice that the head-to-tail method of vector addition is

embedded within the parallelogram method (twice).
Look for it.
Which is better?

Once in a while the parallelogram method is more convenient,

but the head-to-tail method is usually the place to start.

It's much more useful for adding more than two vectors, and it's
the method we'll almost always use to program computers to do
vector addition.
Negative of a Vector
The negative of a vector is defined as the vector that, when added to the
original vector, gives a resultant of zero.
▪ Represented as −A
( )
▪ A + −A = 0
The negative of the vector will have the same magnitude, but point in the
opposite direction.

Section 3.3
Subtracting Vectors

Special case of vector addition:

( )
If A−B , then use A + −B
Continue with standard vector addition
procedure.

Section 3.3
Subtracting Vectors, Method 2
Another way to look at subtraction is to
find the vector that, added to the
second vector gives you the first vector.

( )
A + −B = C

▪ As shown, the resultant vector

points from the tip of the second to
the tip of the first.

Section 3.3
Multiplying or Dividing a Vector by a Scalar

The result of the multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar is a vector.

The magnitude of the vector is multiplied or divided by the scalar.
If the scalar is positive, the direction of the result is the same as of the original
vector.
If the scalar is negative, the direction of the result is opposite that of the original
vector.

Section 3.3
Component Method of Adding Vectors

• Graphical addition is not recommended when high accuracy is

required

• If you have a three-dimensional problem Component Method is an

alternative method

• Component Method uses projections of vectors along coordinate

axes

Section 3.4
Components of a Vector, Introduction
• A component is a projection of a
vector along an axis.

• Any vector can be completely

described by its components.

• It is useful to use rectangular

components.

• These are the projections of the

vector along the x- and y-axes.

Section 3.4
Vector Component Terminology
A x and Ay are the component vectors of A.
▪ They are vectors and follow all the rules for vectors.
Ax and Ay are scalars, and will be referred to as the components of A.

Section 3.4
Components of a Vector
Assume you are given a vector A
It can be expressed in terms of two
other vectors, A x and A y
A = Ax + Ay
These three vectors form a right
triangle.

Section 3.4
Components of a Vector, 2

The y-component is moved to the end

of the x-component.

This is due to the fact that any vector

can be moved parallel to itself without
being affected.

▪ This completes the triangle.

Section 3.4
Components of a Vector, 3

The x-component of a vector is the projection along the x-axis.

Ax = Acos
The y-component of a vector is the projection along the y-axis.
Ay = Asin
This assumes the angle θ is measured with respect to the x-axis.
▪ If not, do not use these equations, use the sides of the triangle directly.

Section 3.4
Components of a Vector, 4

The components are the legs of the right triangle whose hypotenuse is the length
of A.
Ay
▪ A= Ax2 + Ay2 and  = tan−1
Ax

In a problem, a vector may be specified by its components or its magnitude and

direction.

Section 3.4
Components of a Vector, final
The components can be positive or
negative and will have the same units
as the original vector.
The signs of the components will
depend on the angle.

Section 3.4
Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with a magnitude of exactly 1.

Unit vectors are used to specify a direction and have no other physical
significance.

Section 3.4
Unit Vectors, cont.

The symbols î, ĵ, and k̂

represent unit vectors
They form a set of mutually perpendicular
vectors in a right-handed coordinate system
The magnitude of each unit vector is 1

Section 3.4
Unit Vectors in Vector Notation
Ax is the same as Axî and Ay is the
same as Ay ĵ etc.
The complete vector can be expressed
as:

A=Axi+Ayj

Section 3.4
Position Vector, Example

A point lies in the xy plane and has

Cartesian coordinates of (x, y).
The point can be specified by the
position vector.

r̂ = xi+yj

Section 3.4
Adding Vectors Using Unit Vectors
Using R = A + B
Then

( )(
R = Ax i+Ay j + Bx i+By j )
i + (Ay + By )j
R = (Ax + Bx )垐
R = Rx 垐
i + Ry j

So Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By
Ry
R = Rx2 + Ry2  = tan−1
Rx

Section 3.4
Adding Vectors with Unit Vectors
Note the relationships among the
components of the resultant and the
components of the original vectors
are,
Rx = Ax + Bx
Ry = Ay + By

Section 3.4
Three-Dimensional Extension
Using R = A + B
Then

(
R = Ax 垐 )(
i + Ay j + Azk垐+ Bx i + By 垐
j + Bzk )
i+ (Ay + By )j + (Az + Bz )k
R = (Ax + Bx )垐

R = Rx 垐
i + Ry j + Rzk
So Rx= Ax+Bx, Ry= Ay+By, and Rz = Az+Bz
Rx
R = Rx2 + Ry2 + Rz2 x = cos−1 , etc.
R

Section 3.4
Adding Three or More Vectors

The same method can be extended to adding three or more vectors.

Assume

R = A+B+C
And
i + (Ay + By + Cy )j
R = (Ax + Bx + Cx )垐
+(A z + Bz + Cz )k̂

Section 3.4
Example 3.5 – Taking a Hike

A hiker begins a trip by first walking 25.0 km southeast from her car.
She stops and sets up her tent for the night. On the second day, she
walks 40.0 km in a direction 60.0° north of east, at which point she
discovers a forest ranger’s tower.

Section 3.4
Example 3.5 – Solution, Conceptualize and Categorize

▪ Conceptualize the problem by drawing

a sketch as in the figure.

▪Denote the displacement vectors on the

first and second days by A and B
respectively.

▪Use the car as the origin of

coordinates.

▪The vectors are shown in the figure.

▪Draw the resultant , R

We can now categorize this problem as

an addition of two vectors.
Section 3.4
Example 3.5 – Solution, Analysis

Analyze this problem by using our new

knowledge of vector components.

The first displacement has a magnitude

of 25.0 km and is directed 45.0° below
the positive x axis.

Its components are:

Ax = Acos(−45.0) = (25.0 km)(0.707) =

17.7 km

Ay = Asin(−45.0) = (25.0 km)(−0.707) =

−17.7 km
The negative value of Ay indicates that the
hiker walks in the negative y direction
on the first day. Section 3.4
Example 3.5 – Solution, Analysis 2

The second displacement has a

magnitude of 40.0 km and is 60.0°
north of east.

Its components are:

Bx = B cos 60.0 = (40.0 km)(0.500)

= 20.0 km

By = B sin60.0 = (40.0 km)(0.866)

= 34.6 km

Section 3.4
 Example 3.5 – Analysis, 4

Determine the components of the hiker’s

resultant displacement for the trip.

Find an expression for the resultant in terms

of unit vectors.

The resultant displacement for the trip has

components given by:

Rx = Ax + Bx = 17.7 km + 20.0 km = 37.7 km

Ry = Ay + By = -17.7 km + 34.6 km = 16.9 km

In unit vector form:

R = (37.7垐
i +16.9j) km
Section 3.4
Example 3.5 – Solution, Finalize

The resultant vector has a magnitude of

41.3 km and is directed 24.1° north of
east.

The units of R are km, which is

reasonable for a displacement.

From the graphical representation ,

estimate that the final position of the
hiker is at about (38 km, 17 km) which
is consistent with the components of
the resultant.

Section 3.4
Example 3.5 – Solution, Finalize, cont.

Both components of the resultant are positive, putting the final position in the
first quadrant of the coordinate system.
▪ This is also consistent with the figure.

Section 3.4
Chapter 3
Homework Problems

(Just try to solve the problems, next lesson we

will start with solving these)