ETHICS Reviewer (MIDTERMS

STUDY GUIDE 1-3

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE KEY CONCEPTS

Introduction

What is morality? Morality is “a system of beliefs about what is right behavior and wrong

behavior” (Rubin, 2015). Morality refers to “the principles of right and wrong behavior or rightness and

wrongness (that is, goodness and badness) of human actions” (philonotes.com, 2018). In his book,

Elements of Moral Philosophy, author and university professor Dr. James Rachels – a philosopher

who specialized in Ethics – asserted that “at the very least morality is the effort to guide one’s conduct

by reason, to act based on the best reasons for doing, while giving equal weight to the interests of

each individual affected by one’s decision” (Gallinero, 2018).

In this Module, you will learn how to distinguish a moral standard from non-moral standards

and likewise distinguish a moral dilemma from any other types of dilemmas. You will also learn in this

Module how to identify and classify moral experiences as they happen in different levels of human

Existence.

Topic 1. The Need to Study Ethics and the Importance of Rules to Social Beings

What is Ethics?

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) defines that “ethics deals with principles of

ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the

environment and other shared resources” (CMO 20 series of 2013).

Alternatively, ethics which is also called “Moral Philosophy” is a branch of philosophy that

studies the morality of human conduct using moral frameworks, theories, principles and standards.

In our course, “ethics” and “morality” can be used interchangeably, like using the term

“unethical” instead of the term “immoral” or vice-versa. However, philosophically speaking, there is a

very thin dividing line between the terms ethics and morality. Ethics is the specific branch of

philosophy that studies morality, while morality refers to the system of beliefs or principles of
rightness or wrongness of actions. In other words, “ethics is the science of “morals”, while morality

is the practice of ethics” (philonotes.com, 2018).

Relevance of Studying Ethics

College students already have developed a set of moral standards by which they use to

understand the world and a moral compass to navigate it. The end goal of studying Ethics is for the

student to become a person who makes sound judgments, sensitive to the common good

(Gallinero, 2018).

The Importance of Rules to Social Beings

“Rules are necessary to protect the greater good. Even the freest societies ought to have

rules in order to avoid exploitations and tyranny while upholding the common welfare” (De Guzman,

2018). Human societies have rules to guarantee that rights of everyone is protected by regulating

behavior and produce a sense of justice in the society.

Topic 2. Moral versus Non-moral Standards

As explained under Topic 1, we may infer that morality refer to the norms that an individual, a

group or community has regarding what is right or wrong (moral or immoral).

Moral standards are those that “individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed

to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or

morally bad” (philonotes.com, 2018). On the other hand, Non-Moral standards refer to rules “by

which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way” (philonotes.com, 2018).

Topic 3. What are Dilemmas?

Dilemma refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between two or more

options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones (dictionary.com, 2017).

where persons are forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves

the situation in a morally acceptable manner” (philonotes.com, 2018).

Topic 4. What are the Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas?

The three levels of moral dilemmas are, 1) Personal dilemmas, 2) Organizational dilemmas,

and 3) Structural dilemmas.

Personal dilemmas are those that are encountered and resolved personally by the

individual. Personal dilemmas may be caused by the individual him/herself, by another person, or

by a group.

Organizational dilemmas are those “encountered and resolved by social organizations. This

include moral dilemmas in business, medical field and public sector” (De Guzman, 2018).

Structural dilemmas are dilemmas encountered and resolved by network of organizations.

Structural dilemmas are multi-sectoral and larger in scope than organizational dilemmas (De

Guzman, 2018)

Topic 5. Foundation of Morality

Freedom: Responsibility for One’s Act and to Others

Only human beings can be ethical because, 1) only human beings are rational, autonomous

(free) and self-conscious, 2) only human beings can act morally or immorally, and 3) only human

beings are part of the moral community.

Morality involves CHOICE. It is choosing ethical codes, values or standards to guide us in

our lives. Choosing is impossible without freedom. Everyone who wishes to function morally in a

society has to make choices every minute of the day (De Guzman, 2018).

Furthermore, freedom demands responsibility. According to Sartre, even though individuals

must make their own choices because they are free, these choices also have consequences to it –

these consequences are something that the person must endure (Gallinero, 2018).

Minimum Requirement for Morality

Since freedom demands responsibility, according to James Rachels, moral judgments must
be backed by sound reasoning and that morality requires the impartial consideration of all

parties involved (Rachels, 2004)

SUMMARY

• Rules are important because they protect social beings by regulating behavior; they help to

guarantee each person certain rights and freedom; they produce sense of justice among social

beings; and they are essential for a healthy economic system.

• There are different kinds of standards, i.e. etiquette, policy, law, and commandment. In ethics, a

moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or

beliefs.

• A moral dilemma is a situation where: there are two or more actions that you can possibly do;

there is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions; and you cannot do all the possible actions

presented to you, you only need to choose one.

• There are three levels of moral dilemmas. These are personal moral dilemma, organizational

moral dilemma, and structural moral dilemma.

• Only human beings can be ethical because of freedom and reason. Morality is a question of “choice”.
Philosophically, choosing is impossible without freedom. Likewise, moral decisions

must be backed by sound reason and ought to be based on impartial and objective criteria.

UNIT 2: THE MORAL AGENT

What does culture mean? There are several definitions of culture. It is commonly understood

that culture is found everywhere and appears to be part of our behavior and life.

The father of cultural anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in general, culture is the way of

life of a group of people that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any

other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Gallinero, 2018).

In this Module, “the moral agent” that we are referring to is no other than YOU (or anyone) -

the one who is in-charge and responsible for all of your actions and decisions. Generally, you will
learn from this module how culture and Filipino moral identity affect your behavior as a “moral agent”.

Likewise, you will learn how to assess your own personal experiences and decisions against the

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development.

Topic 1. Culture and Moral Behavior

Sub-Topic 1.1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior

What is Culture?

Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human

experiences. Culture possesses five basic elements: symbols, language, beliefs, values and norm

(Gallinero, 2018).

The Role of Culture in Moral Behavior

Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable norms,

it would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct (Gallinero, 2018).

Furthermore, moral rules and the sense of moral obligation and accountability are products

of social convention and social conditioning. The aspect of morality is taught, people learn moral

and immoral from cultural transmitters: the parents, teachers, novels, films, tv shows, etc. (De

Guzman, 2018).

CASES ON DIFFERENT CULTURAL PRACTICES

CASE 1. The Greeks and the Callatians

“Darius, a king of ancient Persia, had found that Callatians, who lived in India, ate the bodies of

their dead fathers. The Greeks, of course, did not do that - the Greeks practiced cremation and

regarded the funeral pyre as the natural and fitting way to dispose of the dead.” (Rachels, J. 2004)

CASE 2. Eskimos of the early and mid 20th Century (Part 1)

“The Eskimos are the native people of Alaska. The Eskimos lived in small settlements, separated

by great distances. Infanticide was common among them. Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer,

reported that he met one woman who had borne 20 children but had killed 10 of them at birth.

Female babies were especially likely to be killed, and this was permitted at the parents’ discretion,

with no social stigma attached. Moreover, when elderly family members became too feeble, they
were left out in the snow to die.” (Rachels, J. 2004)

CASE 3. Eskimos of the early and mid 20th Century (Part 2)

“The Eskimos are the native people of Alaska. The Eskimos lived in small settlements, separated

by great distances. Infanticide was common among them. Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer,

reported that he met one woman who had borne 20 children but had killed 10 of them at birth.

Female babies were especially likely to be killed, and this was permitted at the parents’ discretion,

with no social stigma attached. Moreover, when elderly family members became too feeble, they

were left out in the snow to die.” (Rachels, J. 2004)

CASE 4. Witch Hunting

“In some African and Asian communities, witch hunting is a prevalent practice. Women suspected

of being witches are tortured by the people, tied, covered in gasoline and burned alive. The

motivation of the people of doing the act of witch hunting is the fear of the suffering that the

witches might inflict on them.”

CASE 5. Human Sacrifice

“In Uganda and India, some communities practice Sati, a funeral custom whereby a widow will

throw herself (either willingly, or due to social pressure) on the pyre or lying place of her dead

husband and burn to death. According to source, women do it to show devotion and commitment

for their husbands.”

Sub-Topic 1.2. What is Cultural Relativism? Why is it not tenable in ethics?

Cultural relativism is the view that an action is morally right if one’s culture approves of it.

James Rachels laid 5 claims of cultural relativists as to why right or wrong is only a matter of cultural

standards. Additionally, Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism:

1) “It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard”, and 2) “it

teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth” (Rachels, 2004).

Cultural relativism is not acceptable in ethics because of the dangers that it brings when making moral decisions.
As cited by Gallinero, the dangers of cultural relativism are: 1) “we cannot

call out societal practices to promote harm, 2) we cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful

practices, and 3) the idea of societal progress becomes doubtful” (Gallinero, 2018).
Sub-Topic 1.3. Why are There Universal Values?

Universal values refer to the values that are common to all cultures. According to Rachels,

when it comes to important moral issues, “there are some moral rules that all societies will have in

common, because those rules are necessary for society to survive” (Rachels, 2004).

The existence of the universal values is the strong proof that solely adhering to cultural

relativism is not acceptable in ethics.

Sub-Topic 1.4. The Filipino Way: An Asian and a Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior

The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. Patricia Licuanan, a former

commissioner of CHED and a distinguished Filipino psychologist, wrote that the strengths and

weaknesses of the Filipino Character are rooted in the following factors. These factors are the home

environment, culture and language, history, educational system, religion, the economic system,

political environment, mass media and leaders/role models (Licuanan, 1994).

Sub-Topic 1.5. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

The most common strong aspects of the Filipino character are: pakikipagkapwa-tao, family

orientation, joy and humor, flexibility, adaptability and creativity, hardwork and industry, faith and

religiosity, and ability to survive. The most common weak aspects of the Filipino character are:

extreme personalism, extreme family centeredness, lack of discipline, passivity and lack of initiative,

colonial mentality, kanya-kanya syndrome and lack of self-analysis and self-reflection (Licuanan,

1994).

Topic 2. The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue as Habit

Sub-Topic 2.1. How is Moral Character Developed: The Circular Relation of Acts that Build

Character and Acts that Emanate from Character

Moral Character

Moral character refers to “the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude,

honesty and loyalty” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Moral characters are those dispositions or tendencies

to act or think in a particular way by which a person can be held morally responsible (Gallinero, 2018).

According to De Guzman, “in moral development, there is a circular relation between acts that

build character and moral character itself” (De Guzman, 2018). Your moral character will produce

particular actions that are related with it, and on the other hand, the individual actions that you execute
will determine the kind of moral character that you possess. For example, if you possess an “honest

character”, it will always lead you to do actions associated with honesty (and you may rarely do actions

related to dishonesty). On the other way around, when you “tell the absolute truth even at the risk of

attracting troubles”, this particular action determines the kind of moral character that you have – which

is, honesty.

Philosophical Views on Moral Character

In Confucian tradition, personality meant “an achieved state of moral excellence”. Moral

development was attributed to the “four beginnings” of the human personality, namely: 1) the heart of

compassion (jen), 2) the heart of righteousness (ren), 3) the heart of propriety (Li), and 4) the heart

of wisdom (Zhi) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017).

According to Aristotle, each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is

focused on being a good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things.

The principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean”, the principle that the one

that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (Gallinero, 2018).\

Sub-Topic 2.2. Stages of Moral Development and Conscience: how do we get to the highest

level, conscience-based moral decisions?

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American developmental psychologist and philosopher, is known for

his theory on Moral Development. According to Kohlberg, there are three levels of moral development

(pre-conventional level, conventional level and post conventional level), each with two stages

composing his so-called “six stages of moral development”, namely: 1) punishment-obedience stage,

2) reward orientation, 3) good boy/ good girl orientation, 4) authority orientation, 5) social contract

orientation, and 6) ethical-principle orientation.

SUMMARY

• Culture is all around us, it is a way of life. Culture includes moral values and behaviors, along

with knowledge, beliefs, symbols, etc. that are passed along by communication and imitation

from one generation to the next. Since moral behavior is part of culture, all the aspects of

morality therefore are taught – communicated and imitated.

standard through which we can evaluate the truth of moral judgments.

• Cultural relativism is not tenable in ethics. There are universal values (and moral norms) that are

objectively applicable across all cultures.

• Filipino culture is a conglomeration of western and eastern cultures. Just like any other cultures,

there are strong and weak aspects of the Filipino character. Likewise, many of our strong points

are linked to our weaknesses. The most important thing is that we know our values as Filipinos

because these help us grow and develop.

• Moral characters are rational, informed, stable and reliable dispositions.

• In moral development, a person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but moral character

itself generates acts that help in developing either virtue or vice.

• The three levels of Moral Development are 1) Pre-Conventional Level which includes

punishment-obedience orientation stage and reward orientation stage, 2) Conventional Level

which includes good boy/girl orientation stage and authority orientation stage, and 3) Post

Conventional Stage which includes social contract orientation stage and ethical-principle

orientation stage.

UNIT 3: THE ACT

Introduction:

Some ethicists believe that ethics is also a matter of emotion. “Feelings are seen as also

necessary in ethical judgment as they are even deemed by some as instinctive and trained response

to moral dilemmas” (De Guzman, 2018).

In this Module, “The Act” simply means the action performed by the agent (as deliberate and

free). When you perform whatever kind of action, you need to consider three important things: 1)

feelings, 2) reason and impartiality, and 3) will. You will learn in this module the role of feelings in

making the right decisions and further assent that no matter what type of moral dilemma we

encounter, our moral decisions must be based on reason and impartiality as minimum standards for

morality. Lastly, you will also learn that the “will” is as important as reason.
Topic 1. Feelings and Moral Decision Making

Sub-Topic 1.1. Feelings can be Obstacles in Making the Right Decisions

What are feelings?

Feelings are instinctive responses to moral dilemmas. According to David Hume, “a person

gains awareness of moral good and evil by experiencing the pleasure of approval and uneasiness

of disapproval. Reason alone is insufficient to yield a judgment that something is virtuous or vicious”

(plato.standford.edu, 2018).

Feelings as obstacles in making the right decisions

Feelings can be obstacles in making the right decisions because of its three central features,

they are: 1) their non-deliberate nature, 2) their partial nature, and 3) they are capricious (Gallinero,

2018).

Sub-Topic 1.2. Feelings can Help in Making the Right Decisions

As mentioned by Gallinero, there are at least three ways that feelings help in making the

right decisions, namely: 1) it signals the need to adjust behavior, 2) it can help us learn from our

mistakes, and 3) emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by (Gallinero, 2018).

Sub-Topic 2.2. The Seven-Step Moral Reasoning Model

Scott Rae suggested a 7-step model which can be used in making moral decisions. These

steps are: 1) gather the facts, 2) Determine the ethical issues, 3) what principles have bearing on the

case, 4) list the alternatives, 5) compare the alternatives with the principles, 6) weigh the

consequences, and 7) make a decision.

Topic 3. Moral Courage

Sub-Topic 3.1. Why the will is as important as reason

One’s will power is very important in making moral decisions.

Moral Courage is the courage “to put your moral principles into action even though you may

be in doubt, are afraid, or face adverse consequences. On the other hand, will is the capacity to act

decisively on one’s desire” (Gallinero, 2018).

To develop the will, the one and only way to do it is to engage into putting rational, moral

choice into action.

According to De Guzman, to develop the will, one must: 1) develop and practice self-discipline, 2) do mental
strength training, 3) draw inspiration from people with great courage, 4) repeatedly do

acts that exhibit moral courage and will, and 5) avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and will

(De Guzman, 2018).

SUMMARY

• Feelings can really become obstacles when making ethical decisions; but this fact should not be

interpreted as completely removing your feelings in the domain of morality. Though feelings can

become obstacles, they can likewise help in making the right decisions.

• Since some feelings can hinder decisions, making your actions automatic, instinctive and

emotional responses, there should be a minimum requirement in making ethical decisions - they

are reason and impartiality.

• According to Rachels, morality at the very least “is the effort to guide one’s action based on the

most logical choice (reason) while giving equal importance to the interests of each person

affected by your decisions (impartiality)”.

• To help you in making a reason-and-impartiality-based ethical decision, the 7-step moral

reasoning model is very useful. The steps in the model are as follows: 1) gather the facts, 2)

determine the ethical issues, 3) identify the principles that have bearing on the case, 4) list the

alternatives, 5) compare the alternatives with the principles, 6) weigh the consequences, and 7)

make a decision.

• Will power is very important in making moral decisions. It helps you to make a courageous

choice/decision and the resolve to stand firmly and put into action that decision.