Unit 2

From Reference …
Unit 2 – FROM REFERENCE
I. Referring expressions

II. Predicates, Predicators

III. Deixis and definiteness

IV. Extensions & Prototypes

Summary
✓ Referring expressions
✓ Opaque context
✓ Equative & Generic sentences
A. Referring expressions (REs)
(1) any expressions used in an utterance to refer to sth. /
S.O. (= with a particular referent in mind)
Examples:
1. Roses are flowers. Text

2. My roses are red.

3. John is my close friend.

4. He is a doctor.
(2) Names, personal pronouns, definite descriptive NPs =>
with referents in the real world or fictional world > REs
REs NOT REs
* Definite NP * Indefinite / generic NP
- My bike was broken down. -

* Definite NP * Definite NP, but no referent

- I know the person who stole -
your bike.

* Existing in speaker’s mind * Generic NP

- The phoenix then looked at - What is a phoenix like?
Harry. (imagery, in fiction)
- Tomorrow will be fine. -
(abstract, definite date)
N.B. * Ambiguous cases

E.g. She wants to hire a new maid.

→ any maid =>

→ a more careful, honest, hard-working person =>
Practice 1 (p.37)
Practice 2 (pp.37,38)
B. Opaque context (pp.40-41)
(1) part of a sentence which can be made into a complete
sentence by adding an RE

e.g. Carol believes that _____________ is not hers.

Peter wants to marry ______________.
John hopes _______________ will be arrested.
=>
Carol believes that _____________ is not hers.
Peter wants to marry ______________.
John hopes ___________________ will be arrested.
(2) a context in which substitution of two expressions
with the same reference (keeping the truth value
constant) leads to sentences with different
meanings, in a particular situation
>

a/ John hopes that [the murderer of Smith] will be

arrested.
b/ John hopes that [his older brother] will be arrested.

NOTE: Opacity-creating verbs include hope, want, think,

C. Other concepts related to REs
(1) Equative sentence: used to assert the identity of the
referents of two REs

- Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam.

- Vatican City is the world’s smallest country.
=> Two REs → usually reversible modifid
 NOTE 1 - “Reversal test” (p.42)

✓ Not always applicable to Equative sentences

✓ Sometimes => 2 REs of equative sentence > not
reversible
E.g. That is my father. => NOT:
✓ Sometimes => 2 parts are reversible, but only 1 RE
E.g. What I want is a drink.
= A drink is what I want.
NOTE 2 – Non-equative sentences
> two REs have different referents

Kim looks like Marilyn Monroe.

=> “Kim” / “MM” = 2 REs
=>
=>
Practice 3 (p.42)

Are the following equative sentences?

1. John is the person in the corner.

3. Cairo is not the largest city in Africa.

4. Cairo is a large city.

(2) Generic sentence: a statement about general things
or events => containing no REs
> expressing a fact or a general truth

- Roses are flowers. => Generic sent.

vs. I like roses.
- A billionaire is a rich man. => Generic sent.
vs. Bill Gates is a billionaire.

NOTE: Non-generic sentences may contain both generic

expressions and REs.
Practice 4 (p.59)
Practice 5
What kind of sentences are the following?

1. Fruit and vegetables are good for

everybody.

=> about general fact/truth

=> no REs
=> Fruit and vegetable = NP without a referent
2. Champagne produces the finest wine.

2 REs champagne//the finest wine => differ referents

=> not general
3. Milk is my only drink for breakfast.
Text
4. John is one of my friends.
✓ Predicators vs Predicates
Degree of a predicate
✓ Universe of discourse
A. Predicators (vs. REs)
= a word / expression
>
> carrying the most specific meaning of the utterance
> can be V, A, P, N (content words)
E.g. - This car is wonderful.
- He is a singer.
- The old woman died.
- Your book is between his and mine.
N.B. What is the predicator in an equative sentence?

Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam

Referring Referring
exp. exp.

=> No predicator
=> BE is the “identity predicate”
 NOTES (p.50)
(1) One simple sentence has only ONE predicator

(2) Each predicator requires / determines its arguments.

=> DEGREE of a predicate = number of arguments (x, y,
z) as indicated by REs and determined by the predicator
one-place predicate:
DIE BEAUTIFUL DOCTOR
two-place predicate:
HIT ON SISTER
three-place predicate:
GIVE BETWEEN
 NOTES (p.48)
(3) Each sentence has different semantic roles given to
its subparts:
a/ Peter is sick.
b/ My mother is making a cake.
- Semantic role of the predicator played by a
particular word (V, A, N, P)
>
- Semantic roles of arguments played by the
REs (more in Unit 20, pp.244-259)
>
>
Practice 6 (p.52)
Practice 7 (p.53)
Practice 8 (p.54)

Predicators: 1-SPIDER / 4-IN / 6-MAMMAL

B. Predicates
=> any word that can function as predicator of another
sentence / utterance

e.g. We admire his new car.

REs:
Predicator:
Predicates:

Another context:
=> Her book is new.

=> That is a car.

NOTES (p.48)
Predicates
(1) with a particular sense
(2) without referents (not an RE)
(3) helping identify referent of an RE → embedded
in an RE
E.g1 My old cat caught a small yellow bird.
- REs:
- Predicator:
- Predicates:
E.g.2 The basketball team chose Jane captain.
- REs:
- Predicator:
- Predicates:
E.g.3 Peter’s apples are quite delicious.
- REs:
- Predicator:
- Predicates:
E.g.4 This well-furnished room is for her, not for you.
- REs:
- Predicator:
- Predicates:
E.g.5 Milk can stay fresh after a week.
- REs:
- Predicator:
- Predicates:
C. Universe of discourse for any utterance
= particular world (real or imagery) that the speaker
assumes he is talking about at the time. (p.62)

e.g.1
(Teacher in a science class) “Another small moon has
been found moving around the Earth.”
> The universe of discourse =
e.g.2
(Mother at bedtime) “After her kiss, the toad turns into
a handsome prince again.”
> The universe of discourse =
Practice 9 (p.62)
 NOTES (p.63)

✓ People may have different universes of discourse

in an argument.
e.g.
Peter: I saw something white moving out there. It’s a
ghost!
Judy: You’re talking nonsense. There’re no ghosts at
all!

• Peter’s universe of discourse =

• Judy’s universe of discourse =

Practice 10 (p.63)
✓ Deictic terms & Deixis
✓ Definiteness
 A. DEICTIC TERMS

Take their meanings from the situation or context

of the utterance (e.g. Who? Where? When?)
Have different referents in different contexts
Example:
Ben (to Mary): I saw Tom yesterday. (Today = March 21)
=> The next day…
Mary (to Ann): I saw Ben yesterday. (Today = March 22)
Deictic terms are usually
▪ Adverbs: here, there, yesterday, tomorrow,
now
▪ Demonstratives:
▪ Pronouns:
▪ Verbs:
▪ Tense marker:

(pp. 66-68)
Practice 11 (p.67)

Practice 12 (pp.66, 68-70 )

NOTES
▪ Deixis = general phenomenon of the occurrence of
deictic terms
▪ Terms are called “deictic” when they refer to sth.
(Otherwise, they are not really “deictic” terms).
E.g. You can’t tell a book by its cover.
YOU =>
(In the exam room) Now… now… No cheating!
NOW =>
B. DEFINITENESS (p.73)
= a feature of an NP selected by a speaker in a
particular situational context (where? when? who?
what?), with the assumption that the hearer can
identify the referent of the NP (= RE)
Definite NPs =

e.g.1 (Chopping logs for firewood in the garden)

Husband: “Ouch! I chopped my toe with the axe.”
e.g.2 (Wife calling a doctor for help)
Wife: “Please help! My husband chopped his toe with
an axe.”
 NOTES
1. The DET “the”, as well as other definite NPs, does
not always indicate definiteness.
e.g. The elephant is a big animal.

2. Universe of discourse (UoD), context of utterance

(CoU) and immediate situation of an utterance (IS)
are closely related.
(a) Husband chopped his toe by accident.
UoD? CoU? IS?
IS
(b) Husband was chopping woods in the
garden. UoD? CoU? IS?
(c) The real world the Husband and Wife
are talking about. UoD? CoU? IS?
Practice 13 (p.76)
✓ Extensions
✓ Prototypes
 A. Extensions (p.81)
(of a one-place predicate) = the set of all individuals
to which that predicate can truthfully be applied
relative to all times
e.g.1 – The extension of bird = the set of all birds in the
universe

e.g.2 – The extension of bridge is the set of all bridges in the

universe
Practice 14 (p.83)
B. Prototypes (p.87)

Examples of Prototype
 Typical
bird?

1 2

3 4
Typical
tree?

1 2
 B. Prototypes (p.87)

1. Prototype = an object which is typical of a class

of objects (or set of things)
2.
Practice 15 (pp.88-89)
 NOTES (p.86)
1. In fact, the extension (of a predicate) is usually a
“fuzzy” set (or not a clear set).
2. Denotation > related to extension > to solve the
problem
= the property common to the whole set
e.g. CAT
CHAIR
 SUMMARY

• Referring expressions
• Predicates, Predicators, Degree of a predicate
• Equative / Generic sentences
• Universe of discourse
• Deictic terms, Definiteness
• Extensions, Prototypes