EDA - Assignment

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Illustrate the following topics with proper examples with respect to exploratory
data analytics. ( Marks 40 )
1.Scaling and Standardization
2.Scatter plots
3.Time Series Charts
4.Multiple density curves from Grouped data
5.Tidy data

Scaling and Standardization

Scaling and standardization are two techniques commonly used in exploratory
data analysis to preprocess numerical data before applying machine learning
algorithms. These techniques aim to transform the data to a more standardized
and manageable form, making it easier for the algorithms to work with.

Scaling refers to the process of transforming data so that it falls within a specific
range. This is useful when dealing with data that has different scales, where the
range of values for some features may be much larger than others. For example,
in a dataset that contains age and income data, income may have a range of
thousands or even millions of dollars, while age may range only from 0 to 100.
If we want to apply a machine learning algorithm to this dataset, we may want
to scale the features so that they all have a similar range. This can be achieved
using techniques such as min-max scaling, which scales the data to a range
between 0 and 1, or z-score scaling, which transforms the data to have a mean
of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

Standardization, on the other hand, refers to the process of transforming data so

that it has a standard distribution. This is useful when dealing with data that is
not normally distributed, as many machine learning algorithms assume that the
data is normally distributed. For example, in a dataset that contains test scores,
we may want to standardize the data so that it has a normal distribution with a
mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. This can be achieved using techniques
such as z-score scaling, which transforms the data to have a mean of 0 and a
standard deviation of 1.

Overall, scaling and standardization are important steps in exploratory data

analysis that help to prepare the data for machine learning algorithms. They can
help to improve the accuracy and performance of the algorithms by ensuring
that the data is in a standardized form.

User
explain with an real life example
ChatGPT
Let's consider an example of a dataset containing information about houses for
sale in a particular city. The dataset includes features such as the number of
bedrooms, the square footage, the selling price, and the distance from the city
center.

One of the issues with this dataset is that the features have different scales. For
example, the square footage feature may range from 500 to 5,000, while the
distance from the city center may range from 1 to 20 miles. This difference in
scale can cause problems for machine learning algorithms, as some algorithms
may give more weight to features with larger values, leading to inaccurate
predictions.

To address this issue, we can use scaling techniques such as min-max scaling or
z-score scaling to transform the features so that they all have a similar scale. For
example, we can use min-max scaling to scale the square footage feature to a
range between 0 and 1, and we can use z-score scaling to standardize the
distance from the city center feature so that it has a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 1.

By applying these scaling techniques, we can ensure that the features have a
similar scale and are easier to work with for machine learning algorithms. This
can help to improve the accuracy and performance of the algorithms, leading to
more accurate predictions about house prices in the city.

Scatter plots
A scatter plot is a common visualization used in exploratory data analysis to
show the relationship between two continuous variables. In a scatter plot, each
point represents a pair of values for the two variables, and the position of the
point on the plot indicates the values of the two variables.

Let's consider an example of a dataset containing information about the heights

and weights of a group of people. We can use a scatter plot to visualize the
relationship between these two variables. We can plot the heights on the x-axis
and the weights on the y-axis, with each point representing the height and
weight of a single individual.

When we plot the data in a scatter plot, we may observe a positive correlation
between height and weight, which means that as height increases, weight tends
to increase as well. We may also observe some variability in the relationship,
with some individuals having a higher weight for a given height, and vice versa.
The scatter plot can help us to identify any outliers or unusual observations that
may be present in the data, such as individuals who have a very high weight for
their height.
By analyzing the scatter plot, we can gain insights into the relationship between
height and weight in our dataset, which can be useful for understanding the data
and informing further analysis. For example, we may decide to fit a linear
regression model to the data to quantify the relationship between height and
weight and make predictions about weight based on height. Alternatively, we
may decide to further investigate the outliers in the data to understand why
certain individuals have a higher or lower weight for their height

Time Series Charts

Time series charts are a common visualization used in exploratory data analysis
to show how a particular variable changes over time. In a time series chart, the
x-axis represents time, and the y-axis represents the value of the variable of
interest.

Let's consider an example of a dataset containing daily stock prices for a

particular company over the course of several years. We can use a time series
chart to visualize how the stock price of the company changes over time.

When we plot the data in a time series chart, we may observe some patterns or
trends in the data. For example, we may observe that the stock price tends to
increase over time, indicating that the company is growing and becoming more
valuable. However, we may also observe some variability in the data, with some
periods of time showing larger increases or decreases in stock price than others.
The time series chart can help us to identify any unusual observations or trends
in the data, such as periods of time where the stock price may have been
affected by external factors such as news events or economic conditions.

By analyzing the time series chart, we can gain insights into the behavior of the
stock price over time, which can be useful for understanding the performance of
the company and informing investment decisions. For example, we may decide
to fit a time series model to the data to make predictions about future stock
prices and inform investment strategies. Alternatively, we may use the time
series chart to identify periods of time where the stock price may have been
affected by external factors, which can be useful for understanding the
company's performance and making informed investment decisions.

Multiple density curves

Multiple density curves from grouped data is a common visualization
technique used in exploratory data analysis to compare the distribution of a
variable across multiple groups. In this technique, density curves are plotted for
each group, allowing us to compare the shape and spread of the distribution
between groups.

Let's consider an example of a dataset containing information about the test

scores of students in a class, grouped by gender. We can use multiple density
curves to compare the distribution of test scores between male and female
students.

When we plot the data using multiple density curves, we can observe the shape
and spread of the distribution of test scores for each group. For example, we
may observe that the distribution of test scores for female students is slightly
skewed to the right, indicating that female students tend to perform slightly
better than male students on average. We may also observe some overlap in the
distributions, indicating that there is some variability in test scores within each
group.

By analyzing the multiple density curves, we can gain insights into the
distribution of test scores among male and female students, which can be useful
for understanding patterns in student performance and informing educational
interventions. For example, we may decide to investigate why female students
tend to perform slightly better on tests and develop strategies to support male
students in achieving better test scores. Alternatively, we may use the multiple
density curves to identify students who are performing below average and
provide targeted support to help them improve their test scores.
Tidy data
Tidy data is a concept in exploratory data analysis that refers to a data
format where each variable has its own column and each observation has its
own row. This format makes it easy to manipulate and analyze data, and is
widely used in data science.

Let's consider an example of a dataset containing information about customer

purchases at a retail store. The data includes the following columns: customer
ID, purchase date, item description, item category, price, and quantity.

To convert this dataset into tidy data format, we would need to reformat the data
so that each variable has its own column and each observation has its own row.
This might involve splitting the original dataset into several tables, with each
table containing information about a specific variable.

For example, we might create a table that contains information about customers,
with each row representing a different customer and each column representing a
different attribute of the customer (such as customer ID, name, and address). We
might also create a table that contains information about purchases, with each
row representing a different purchase and each column representing a different
attribute of the purchase (such as customer ID, purchase date, item description,
item category, price, and quantity).

By reformatting the data into tidy data format, we can easily manipulate and
analyze the data using tools such as SQL, pandas, or dplyr. For example, we
might use SQL to calculate the total amount spent by each customer, or use
pandas to plot the distribution of purchase prices across different item
categories.

Overall, tidy data is a powerful tool for exploratory data analysis, as it allows us
to easily manipulate and analyze data in a standardized and structured way.
IR - Assignment
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Examine the following with respect to Information Retrieval Systems.
(Marks 40 )
1.Visual feature localisation
2.Link analysis for text extraction
3.Index compression
4.Vector space model Strategy
5.Text Mining Application
Visual feature localisation
Visual feature localization in information retrieval refers to the process of identifying
and localizing specific visual features in images or videos that are relevant to a user's
search query. It involves analyzing the visual content of an image or video to extract
relevant features such as color, texture, shape, and spatial relationships between
objects.

The goal of visual feature localization is to accurately identify and extract these
features and use them to match a user's search query with relevant visual content.
This is particularly important in image and video search, where users may not know
the specific keywords or tags associated with the visual content they are looking for.

There are several methods used for visual feature localization in information retrieval,
including deep learning-based approaches that use convolutional neural networks
(CNNs) to extract features from images or videos. These features are then compared
to features extracted from the user's search query to identify matches.

Other methods include using keypoint detection and matching algorithms to identify
and match specific points of interest in images, or using techniques such as color
histograms and edge detection to extract features and match them with a user's
query.

Overall, visual feature localization plays a critical role in improving the accuracy and
relevance of image and video search results by enabling the identification and
matching of specific visual features that are relevant to a user's search query.
Link analysis for text extraction
Link analysis is a technique used in information retrieval to extract and analyze
relationships between different pieces of text, such as web pages or articles. It
involves identifying and analyzing the links or connections between different texts to
understand how they are related and to extract relevant information.

In the context of text extraction, link analysis can be used to identify important
keywords or phrases that are related to a particular topic or subject. This is typically
done by analyzing the links between different web pages or documents and
identifying common themes or patterns in the links.

One approach to link analysis for text extraction is to use algorithms such as
PageRank or HITS (Hypertext Induced Topic Selection) to identify important web
pages or documents based on the links between them. These algorithms analyze the
link structure of a collection of documents to identify those that are most central or
authoritative in the network.

Another approach is to use natural language processing (NLP) techniques to analyze

the content of the documents and identify keywords or phrases that are related to a
particular topic. These keywords can then be used to identify other documents that
are relevant to the same topic based on their links to the original document.

Overall, link analysis is a powerful tool for text extraction that can help identify
important keywords and themes related to a particular topic or subject. By analyzing
the links between different pieces of text, link analysis can provide insights into how
information is organized and connected, which can be used to improve the accuracy
and relevance of text extraction algorithms.

Index compression
Index compression is a technique used in information retrieval to reduce the size of
the index used to store information about documents and their associated terms.
The index is a data structure that maps each term in the collection of documents to
the set of documents that contain that term.

Index compression techniques aim to reduce the amount of space required to store
the index while maintaining fast query processing times. This is important in large-
scale information retrieval systems, where the index can consume a significant
amount of storage space and can impact the overall performance of the system.

One approach to index compression is to use variable-length encoding schemes to

represent the terms and document IDs in the index. These schemes assign shorter
codes to frequently occurring terms and longer codes to less frequent terms, which
can significantly reduce the size of the index.

Another approach is to use compression algorithms such as gzip or Lempel-Ziv to

compress the index data before storage. These algorithms can achieve high
compression ratios by identifying and removing redundant information from the
index.

In addition to these techniques, many other methods have been developed for index
compression, including dictionary-based compression, byte-aligned compression,
and delta encoding.

Vector space model Strategy

The vector space model (VSM) is a widely used strategy in information retrieval that
represents documents and queries as vectors in a high-dimensional space. In this
model, each dimension of the space represents a term in the collection of
documents, and the value of each dimension represents the frequency of that term in
the document or query.

To create the vector representation of a document, the frequency of each term in the
document is counted, and these counts are used as the values of the dimensions of
the vector. For example, if the term "dog" appears three times in a document, the
value of the "dog" dimension in the vector representing that document would be 3.

To create the vector representation of a query, the same process is followed, but the
frequency of each term is counted in the query rather than the document.

Once the vectors for the documents and query have been created, the similarity
between them can be computed using a measure such as the cosine similarity. This
measures the angle between the vectors and is high when the vectors are pointing in
the same direction, indicating a high degree of similarity between the document and
the query.

The vector space model has several advantages as a strategy for information
retrieval. It is a simple and flexible approach that can accommodate a wide range of
document types and query structures. It can also handle large collections of
documents efficiently and allows for the use of advanced techniques such as
dimensionality reduction and clustering.
However, the vector space model also has some limitations. For example, it does not
take into account the order or proximity of terms in the document or query, and it
can be sensitive to the presence of irrelevant or noisy terms in the collection of
documents. These limitations can be addressed using more advanced techniques
such as query expansion or relevance feedback.

Text Mining Application
1. Sentiment Analysis: Sentiment analysis is the process of analyzing text data to
determine the sentiment or emotional tone of the text. It is widely used in
social media monitoring, brand monitoring, and customer feedback analysis.
2. Topic Modeling: Topic modeling is a technique used to extract underlying
themes or topics from a collection of documents. It is commonly used in text
analysis and can be applied to many different domains such as customer
feedback analysis, market research, and content analysis.
3. Text Classification: Text classification is the process of categorizing text data
into different predefined categories or classes. This is used in applications
such as spam detection, content filtering, and document classification.
4. Named Entity Recognition: Named entity recognition (NER) is the process of
identifying and extracting entities such as people, organizations, and locations
from text data. It is commonly used in applications such as information
extraction, news analysis, and social media monitoring.
5. Text Summarization: Text summarization is the process of generating a
concise summary of a longer text document. It is used in applications such as
news article summarization, document summarization, and summarization of
legal documents.
6. Language Translation: Language translation involves translating text data from
one language to another. This is used in applications such as document
translation, language learning, and machine translation.
7. Information Extraction: Information extraction involves automatically
extracting structured information from unstructured text data. This is used in
applications such as customer feedback analysis, news article analysis, and
social media monitoring.