Q.1 Elaborate That The Scientific Approach of Organizational Change? Answer
Q.1 Elaborate That The Scientific Approach of Organizational Change? Answer
Q.1 Elaborate That The Scientific Approach of Organizational Change? Answer
Assignment-02
Q.1 Elaborate that the scientific approach of organizational
change?
Answer
Prior to the early 1900s, there was no management theory as we think of it
today. Work happened as it always had—those with the skills did the work in
the way they thought best (usually the way it had always been done). The
concept that work could be studied and the work process improved did not
formally exist before the ideas of Frederick Winslow Taylor.
The scientific management movement produced revolutionary ideas for the time
—ideas such as employee training and implementing standardized best practices
to improve productivity. Taylor’s theory was called scientific because to
develop it, he employed techniques borrowed from botanists and chemists, such
as analysis, observation, synthesis, rationality, and logic. You may decide as
you read more about Taylor that by today’s criteria he was not the worker’s
“friend.” However, Taylor must be given credit for creating the concept of an
organization being run “as a business” or in a “businesslike manner,” meaning
efficiently and productively.
Frederick W. Taylor
Before the Industrial Revolution, most businesses were small operations,
averaging three or four people. Owners frequently labored next to employees,
knew what they were capable of, and closely directed their work. The dynamics
of the workplace changed dramatically in the United States with the Industrial
Revolution. Factory owners and managers did not possess close relationships
with their employees. The workers “on the floor” controlled the work process
and generally worked only hard enough to make sure they would not be fired.
There was little or no incentive to work harder than the next man (or woman).
Taylor was a mechanical engineer who was primarily interested in the type of
work done in factories and mechanical shops. He observed that the owners and
managers of the factories knew little about what actually took place in the
workshops. Taylor believed that the system could be improved, and he looked
around for an incentive. He settled on money. He believed a worker should get
“a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work”—no more, no less. If the worker
couldn’t
Work to the target, then the person shouldn’t be working at all. Taylor also
believed that management and labor should cooperate and work together to
meet goals. He was the first to suggest that the primary functions of managers
should be planning and training.
Scientific management has at its heart four core principles that also apply
to organizations today. They include the following:
Look at each job or task scientifically to determine the “one best way” to
perform the job. This is a change from the previous “rule of thumb”
method where workers devised their own ways to do the job.
Hire the right workers for each job, and train them to work at maximum
efficiency.
Monitor worker performance, and provide instruction and training when
needed.
Divide the work between management and labor so that management can
plan and train, and workers can execute the task efficiently.
Taylor designed his approach for use in places where the work could be
quantified, systemized, and standardized, such as in factories. In scientific
management, there is one right way to do a task; workers were not encouraged
(in fact, they were forbidden) to make decisions or evaluate actions that might
produce a better result.
Taylor was concerned about the output more than worker satisfaction or
motivation. Taylor’s work introduced for the first time the idea of systematic
training and selection, and it encouraged business owners to work with
employees to increase productivity and efficiency. And he introduced a “first-
class worker” concept to set the standard for what a worker should be able to
produce in a set period of time. Scientific management grew in popularity
among big businesses because productivity rose, proving that it worked.
As stated above, the Gilbreths used films to analyze worker activity. They
would break the tasks into discrete elements and movements and record the time
it took to complete one element. In this way, they were able to predict the most
efficient workflow for a particular job. The films the Gilbreths made were also
useful for creating training videos to instruct employees in how to work
productively.
Taylor and the Gilbreths belonged to the classical school of management, which
emphasized increasing worker productivity by scientific analysis. They differed,
however, on the importance of the worker. Taylor’s emphasis was on
profitability and productivity; the Gilbreths were also focused on worker
welfare and motivation. They believed that by reducing the amount of motions
associated with a particular task, they could also increase the worker’s
wellbeing. Their research, along with Taylor’s, provided many important
principles later incorporated into quality assurance and quality control programs
begun in the 1920s and 1930s. Eventually, their work led to the science of
ergonomics and industrial psychology. (Ergonomics is the study of people in
their operating environment, with the goal of increasing productivity and
reducing risk of work-related injury.)
2.1. Quality
Literature variably refers to quality as ‘slippery’, ‘mobile’, ‘elastic’ and
‘elusive’. Notwithstanding, the chapter conceives quality as referring to an
expression of satisfaction with the constitution, form and performance of a good
based on the beholders’ conditionality of time and space. The value or worthy a
person assigns to a good can appreciate or depreciate dependent on time and
environment or space in which one finds himself. Nonetheless, quality is
generally perceived as a representation of complex mix-and-match of qualities
and variables embodied in products and services. The functional relationship
has been captured by in Eq.
EduQuali=∑kj=i(Pij=Eij)EduQuali=∑j=ikPij=Eij E1
where EduQUAL is perceived education quality of student ‘i’, k is the number
of education attributes/items, P is perception of student ‘i’ with respect to
performance of an attribute ‘j’ of institution, E is the education quality
expectations of student ‘i’ for an attribute ‘j’.
It should be noted that customers do not always assign the same importance to
any characteristic or feature permanently. The ever increase in the numbers and
peculiarity of substitute and complimentary products/services and even features
complicates the Education system’s comprehension of the package of features
that would best meet customer needs and wants. Thus, the measure of quality
education depends on the skill with which the various stakeholder voices are
integrated, processed and escalated into features of the institution and its related
deliverables such as courses and programs. Such features include, but are not
limited to:
1. Institutional structure,
2. Institutional facilities,
3. Program and course content,
4. Delivery modes and
5. Instructional interaction at the student-teacher interface.
2.2. Management
Management has been focused through the lenses of a planning process,
provision of leadership, staffing, organizing, monitoring and controlling, all
with the aim of achieving effectiveness and efficiency across the institution.
Good management is about boundary spanning and gluing people of same and
different dispositions around the institution’s vision, mission and operations.
The proclivity for turf-warring, group-think and de-generation into clinches is
high in multi-stakeholder and multi-layered institutions.
2. Being time-based: this BPP means the institution values time as a competitive
tool and resource of critical developmental value. Therefore time should not be
wasted, for instance, in pursuing non-value creating ideas and activities.
3. being up-front: a BPP that expresses employees’ high moral probity in their
valuing of honesty, humility and sincerity in all their interactions and relations.
10. Having the desire to be out front: a BPP that describes the institution’s
structural, functional and behavioral disposition to live well above and ahead of
industry-business standards, norms and practices.
11. Linking the micro to the macro: a BPP, an expression of how employees
manage their personal mastery in the understanding of how their individual
efforts contribute to the wholesome business success.
12. Measuring, reporting and learning; a BPP that exhorts institutional sectors to
measure, report on performance so that teams learn and better perceive the
institution’s atlas of improvement.
13. Resourcing for the medium-term measures the institution’s ability to excel
at accomplishing short-term objectives and turning them into resources for
medium- and long-term goals.
14. Supporting distributed leadership: in this BPP employees take up roles with
commitments to make careful decisions that fecund their own and others
operational effectiveness and efficiency.
Good as they are, these BPPs need to be in vinculum with quality excellence
principles upon which education is premised. In fact the BPPs must help in
creating a context for optimization of policies, procedures and standards used to
deliver high quality education in institutions.
2.3. System
A system is an organized, purposive structure consisting of interdependent
components that perpetually, but variably influence one another. Education and
QM infrastructures are both deliberate purpose-driven systems. Any education
is bestowed with a number of goals and objectives just as any quality
management model is charged with a number of goals and objectives.
The throughputs routes and their inherent transformative activities must show
concerns on wastage, increasing business opportunities, effectiveness and
efficiency. At the output stages, the focus is on outputting products and services
that satisfy and delights the customer. A clear institutional paradigm on quality
education should determine the quality of inputs selected and how they get
transformed in ways that approximates hypothesized quality as close to
perceived quality as possible.
It is the author’s view that the route to high quality education should be
designed down from the institution’s vision which must be explicitly clear on
quality objectives and metrics. Subjecting educational outputs to the scrutiny
and validation of the customers helps in setting and sharing meaning and
standards against which to design a corpus of criteria for success. Modern
industry-based QMSs like Six Sigma, Total Quality Management and quality
function deployment among others have, since the 1980s, become widely used
in education.
The four-level model and the goal-free evaluation model both focus on
measurement.
The behavioral objectives approach focus on results.
The responsive evaluation model, the consumer-oriented approach and
the empowerment evaluation model focus on the customer.
The organizational learning model focus on knowledge management
while.
The participatory/collaborative approach focus on partnerships.
Q.3 Define the Change process in detail. What are the basic
strategies for managing the change?
Answer
Businesses must constantly evolve and adapt to meet a variety of challenges—
from changes in technology, to the rise of new competitors, to a shift in laws,
regulations, or underlying economic trends. Failure to do so could lead to
stagnation or, worse, failure.
Have you been tasked with managing a significant change initiative for your
organization? Would you like to demonstrate that you’re capable of
spearheading such an initiative the next time one arises? Here’s an overview of
what change management is, the key steps in the process, and actions you can
take to develop your managerial skills and become more effective in your role.
Strategic goals: What goals does this change help the organization work
toward?
Key performance indicators: How will success be measured? What
metrics need to be moved? What’s the baseline for how things currently
stand?
Project stakeholders and team: Who will oversee the task of
implementing change? Who needs to sign off at each critical stage? Who
will be responsible for implementation?
Project scope: What discrete steps and actions will the project include?
What falls outside of the project scope?
While it’s important to have a structured approach, the plan should also account
for any unknowns or roadblocks that could arise during the implementation
process and would require agility and flexibility to overcome.
Ask yourself questions like: Were project goals met? If yes, can this success be
replicated elsewhere? If not, what went wrong?
HOW TO MANAGE CHANGE EFFECTIVELY
While no two change initiatives are the same, they typically follow a similar
process. To effectively manage change, managers and business leaders must
thoroughly understand the steps involved.
Some other tips for managing organizational change include asking yourself
questions like:
Do you understand the forces making change necessary? Without this
understanding, it can be difficult to effectively address the underlying
causes that have necessitated change, hampering your ability to succeed.
Do you have a plan? Without a detailed plan and defined strategy, it can
be difficult to usher a change initiative through to completion.
How will you communicate? Successful change management requires
effective communication with both your team members and key
stakeholders. Designing a communication strategy that acknowledges this
reality is critical.
Have you identified potential roadblocks? While it’s impossible to predict
everything that might potentially go wrong with a project, taking the time
to anticipate potential barriers and devise mitigation strategies before you
get started is generally a good idea.
Q.4 Discuss the different ways of data collection, its analysis and
decision making.
Answer
The process of gathering and analyzing accurate data from various sources to
find answers to research problems, trends and probabilities, etc., to evaluate
possible outcomes is Known as Data Collection. Keep scrolling to know more.
So, to help you get the process started, we shine a spotlight on data collection.
What exactly is it? Believe it or not, it’s more than just doing a Google search!
Furthermore, what are the different types of data collection? And what kinds of
data collection tools and data collection techniques exist?
If you want to get up to speed about what is data collection process, you’ve
come to the right place.
Before an analyst begins collecting data, they must answer three questions first:
what’s the goal or purpose of this research?
What kinds of data are they planning on gathering?
What methods and procedures will be used to collect, store, and process
the information?
The concept of data collection isn’t a new one, as we’ll see later, but the world
has changed. There is far more data available today, and it exists in forms that
were unheard of a century ago. The data collection process has had to change
and grow with the times, keeping pace with technology.
Whether you’re in the world of academia, trying to conduct research, or part of
the commercial sector, thinking of how to promote a new product, you need
data collection to help you make better choices.
Now that you know what data collection is and why we need it, let's take a look
at the different methods of data collection. While the phrase “data collection”
may sound all high-tech and digital, it doesn’t necessarily entail things like
computers, big data, and the internet. Data collection could mean a telephone
survey, a mail-in comment card, or even some guy with a clipboard asking
passersby some questions. But let’s see if we can sort the different data
collection methods into a semblance of organized categories.
Data collection breaks down into two methods. As a side note, many terms,
such as techniques, methods, and types, are interchangeable and depending on
who uses them. One source may call data collection techniques “methods,” for
instance. But whatever labels we use, the general concepts and breakdowns
apply across the board whether we’re talking about marketing analysis or a
scientific research project.
The two methods are:
∙ Primary
As the name implies, this is original, first-hand data collected by the data
researchers. This process is the initial information gathering step, performed
before anyone carries out any further or related research. Primary data results
Are highly accurate provided the researcher collects the information. However,
there’s a downside, as first-hand research is potentially time-consuming and
expensive.
∙ Secondary
Secondary data is second-hand data collected by other parties and already
having undergone statistical analysis. This data is either information that the
researcher has tasked other people to collect or information the researcher has
looked up. Simply put, its second-hand information. Although it’s easier and
cheaper to obtain than primary information, secondary information raises
concerns regarding accuracy and authenticity. Quantitative data makes up a
majority of secondary data.
∙ Delphi Technique
The Oracle at Delphi, according to Greek mythology, was the high priestess of
Apollo’s temple, who gave advice, prophecies, and counsel. In the realm of data
collection, researchers use the Delphi technique by gathering information from
a panel of experts. Each expert answers questions in their field of specialty, and
the replies are consolidated into a single opinion.
∙ Focus Groups
Focus groups, like interviews, are a commonly used technique. The group
consists of anywhere from a half-dozen to a dozen people, led by a moderator,
brought together to discuss the issue.
∙ Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a simple, straightforward data collection method.
Respondents get a series of questions, either open or close-ended, related to the
matter at hand.
∙ Word Association
The researcher gives the respondent a set of words and asks them what comes to
mind when they hear each word.
∙ Sentence Completion
Researchers use sentence completion to understand what kind of ideas the
respondent has. This tool involves giving an incomplete sentence and seeing
how the interviewee finishes it.
∙ Role-Playing
Respondents are presented with an imaginary situation and asked how they
would act or react if it was real.
∙ In-Person Surveys
The researcher asks questions in person.
∙ Online/Web Surveys
These surveys are easy to accomplish, but some users may be unwilling to
answer truthfully, if at all.
∙ Mobile Surveys
These surveys take advantage of the increasing proliferation of mobile
technology. Mobile collection surveys rely on mobile devices like tablets or
smartphones to conduct surveys via SMS or mobile apps.
∙ Phone Surveys
No researcher can call thousands of people at once, so they need a third party to
handle the chore. However, many people have call screening and won’t answer.
∙ Observation
Sometimes, the simplest method is the best. Researchers who make direct
observations collect data quickly and easily, with little intrusion or third-party
bias. Naturally, it’s only effective in small-scale situations.
Among the effects of data collection done incorrectly, include the following
-
∙ Erroneous conclusions that squander resources
∙ Decisions that compromise public policy
∙ Incapacity to correctly respond to research inquiries
∙ Bringing harm to participants who are humans or animals
∙ deceiving other researchers into pursuing futile research avenues ∙ the study's
inability to be replicated and validated when these study findings are used to
support recommendations for public policy, there is the potential to result in
disproportionate harm, even if the degree of influence from flawed data
collecting may vary by discipline and the type of investigation.
Quality Assurance
As data collecting comes before quality assurance, its primary goal is
“prevention" (i.e., forestalling problems with data collection). The best way to
protect the accuracy of data collection is through prevention. The uniformity of
Protocol created in the thorough and exhaustive procedures manual for data
collecting serves as the best example of this proactive step.
The likelihood of failing to spot issues and mistakes early in the research
attempt increases when guides are written poorly. There are several ways to
show these shortcomings:
Quality Control
Despite the fact that quality control actions (detection/monitoring and
intervention) take place both after and during data collection, the specifics
should be meticulously detailed in the procedures manual. Establishing
monitoring systems requires a specific communication structure, which is a
prerequisite. Following the discovery of data collection problems, there should
be no ambiguity regarding the information flow between the primary
investigators and staff personnel. A poorly designed communication system
promotes slack oversight and reduces opportunities for error detection.
Problems with data collection, for instance, that call for immediate action
include:
Fraud or misbehavior
Systematic mistakes, procedure violations
Individual data items with errors
Issues with certain staff members or a site's performance
Researchers are trained to include one or more secondary measures that can be
used to verify the quality of information being obtained from the human subject
in the social and behavioral sciences where primary data collection entails using
human subjects.
Budget
A budget is an estimation of revenue and expenses over a specified future
period of time and is usually compiled and re-evaluated on a periodic basis.
Budgets can be made for a person, a group of people, a business, a government,
or just about anything else that makes and spends money.
To manage your monthly expenses, prepare for life's unpredictable events, and
be able to afford big-ticket items without going into debt, budgeting is
important. Keeping track of how much you earn and spend doesn't have to be
drudgery, doesn't require you to be good at math, and doesn't mean you can’t
buy the things you want. It just means that you'll know where your money goes,
you'll have greater control over your finances.
Understanding Budgeting
A budget is a microeconomic concept that shows the trade-off made when one
good is exchanged for another. In terms of the bottom line—or the end result of
this trade-off—a surplus budget means profits are anticipated, a balanced
budget means revenues are expected to equal expenses, and a deficit budget
means expenses will exceed revenues.
1. Add up your total income. This should include all sources, such as a
paycheck, tips, Social Security, disability, alimony, or investment income.
2. Track your spending. Spend a month keeping track of everything you spend,
whether you pay with a credit card or cash, to find what your real expenses are.
Be sure to include automatic payments, subscriptions, and utilities.
3. Set financial goals. Do you want to save money? Pay off debt? Stop
overspending? Decide on realistic goals. Remember, you can adjust these over
time. Pick the most pressing goals, such as paying off debt or creating an
emergency fund, first.
4. Calculate mandatory expenses. These are expenses you must pay each month,
such as rent, insurance premiums, taxes, childcare, or your cell phone bill.
Subtract these from your total income.
5. Identify debt payments. If you are paying off debt, such as student loans or a
credit card bill, find the minimum payment for each debt. Subtract that from
your income as well.
6. Make a spending plan. The amount of income you have left is what you can
spend on discretionary expenses. These can include your goals, such as debt
payment or savings. It should also include things like groceries, entertainment,
gas, or surprise expenses. Give every dollar a job, based on your goals and what
you discovered when you tracked your spending.
7. Adjust each month. Each month, look at your spending and goals, Reevaluate
and adjust where you assign your discretionary spending. A flexible budget will
help you avoid overspending.
Corporate Budgets
Budgets are an integral part of running any business efficiently and effectively.
The budget is published in a packet that outlines the standards and procedures
used to develop it, including the assumptions about the markets, key
relationships with vendors that provide discounts, and explanations of how
certain calculations were made.
All budgets get rolled up into the master budget, which also includes budgeted
financial statements, forecasts of cash inflows and outflows, and an overall
financing plan. At a corporation, the top management reviews the budget and
submits it for approval to the board of directors.
Both types of budgets are useful for management. A static budget evaluates the
effectiveness of the original budgeting process, while a flexible budget provides
deeper insight into business operations.
Personal Budgets
Individuals and families can have budgets, too. Creating and using a budget is
not just for those who need to closely monitor their cash flows from month to
month because "money is tight." Almost everyone—even people with large
paychecks and plenty of money in the bank—can benefit from budgeting.
Without knowing your cash flow, you could be putting yourself into a bad
financial situation and not even know it. You can only get by without knowing
your cash flow for so long before you get into financial trouble, so make the
time you know the flow of your cash. Budgeting should be something that
everyone does, regardless of their financial situation.
Budgeting is a wonderful tool for managing your finances, but many people
think it's not for them. Below is a list of budget myths—the erroneous logic that
stops people from keeping track of their finances and allocating money in the
best way.
If one's monthly expenses typically consume the lion's share of net income, any
budget should focus on identifying and classifying all the expenses that occur
during the month, quarter, and year. And for people whose cash flow is tight, it
can be crucial for identifying expenses that could be reduced or cut, and
minimizing any wasteful interest being paid on credit cards or other debt.
3. My Job Is Secure
No one's job is truly safe. If you work for a corporation, being laid off due to
downsizing or a takeover always is a possibility. If you work for a small
company, it could die with its owner, be bought out, or just fold.
You should always be prepared for a job loss by having at least three months’
worth of living expenses in the bank. It's easier to accumulate this financial
cushion if you know the amount you're bringing in and spending each month,
which can be monitored with a budget.
Unless you're on a very tight budget, you should be able to buy baseball tickets
and go out to eat. Tracking your expenses does not change the amount of money
you have available to spend every month; it just tells you where that money is
going.
But that catch mainly applies to earn income. Whether you are an adult student
going back to school or the parent of a student headed to college, the Free
Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) form (used for Stafford Loans,
Perkins Loans, or Pell Grants), does not require you to report the value of your
primary residence (if you own a home) or the value of your retirement
accounts.1
So if you want to save money without compromising your financial aid
eligibility, you can do so by using your savings to buy a house, prepay your
mortgage, or contribute more money to your retirement accounts. The savings
you put into these assets can still be accessed if you face an emergency, but you
won't be penalized for it.
Even if you employ all the available legal strategies to maximize your financial
aid eligibility, you still won't always qualify for as much aid as you need, so it's
not a bad idea to have your own source of funds to make up for any shortfall.
8. I'm Debt-Free
Good for you! But being debt-free without any savings won't pay your bills in
an emergency. A zero balance can quickly become a negative balance if you
don’t have a safety net.
Some people know how to figure how much they'll get in a refund (or how
much they will owe) as well as how to adjust this figure through changes in
payroll withholding throughout the year. However, changes in tax deductions,
IRS regulations, or other life events can mean a nasty surprise on your tax
return.
If you are saving for retirement, you may have the option of contributing a set
amount regularly to a 401(k) or other retirement savings plan. This way, you
can pay yourself first, have enough money for the transfer, and pay yourself the
same predetermined amount that you know will help you meet your savings
goals.
Building a Budget
In general, traditional budgeting starts with tracking expenses, eliminating debt,
and once the budget is balanced, building an emergency fund. But to speed up
the process, you could start by building a partial emergency fund.
This emergency fund acts as a buffer as the rest of the budget is put in place and
should replace the use of credit cards for emergency situations.
The key is to build the fund at regular intervals, consistently devoting a certain
percentage of each paycheck toward it, and if possible, putting in whatever you
can spare on top. This will get you to think about your spending, too.