Chemistry definitions:

Chapter 2: SEPARATING MIXTURES

1) Proton number: number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
2) Element- Substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means
3) Atom- the unit particle of an element
4) Molecules- a group of atoms joined together
5) Monoatomic- only one element exists in a substance
6) Di-atomic- two elements exist in a substance
7) Compound- contains more than one type of atom, held together by chemical bonds. Atoms are always
present in fixed ratios and they cannot be separated by physical means
8) Mixture- can contain any number of different substances in any ratio. Substances are just mixed and they
can be separated by physical means

Pipette- 25cm^3- drop by drop- most accurate (will be used only when 25cm^3 is needed)
Burette- anything between 0 to 25 cm^3 (will be used when the value is in between 0 to 25cm^3)- second best
option
Measuring Cylinder- least accurate

Chapter 3: MAKING BONDS

9) Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.
10)Lattice: regular 3D arrangement of ions in a crystalline solution.
11) Nuclei: the positively charged center of the atom consisting of protons and neutrons
12)Oxidation: removal of electrons. Gain of oxygen. To form a positive ion
13)Oxidising agent: substance that causes an increase in the oxidation number
14)Reduction: gain of electrons. Loss of oxygen. To form negative ion
15)Reducing agent: substance that causes a decrease in oxidation number
16)Valency: combining power of an atom or group of atoms. Equal to its charge. Often referred to
as an atom's oxidation state.
17)Ionic bonds- a strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions
18) Metallic bonding- it is a regular arrangement of positive ions in the sea of mobile delocalised
free electrons.
Chapter 5: ELECTROLYSIS
19) Electrolysis: the breakdown of a molecule into its constituent elements by a passage of an
electric current.
20) Anode: positively charged electrode. Because e- are drawn away from it
21) Cathode: negatively charged electrode. Because e- are drawn away from it
22) Electrode: metal or carbon through which current enters and leaves the electrolytic cell.
EXAMPLE: inert- C, Pt. non inert- Zn, Cu
23) Electrolyte: a substance that conducts electricity when in molten or aqueous state.

Chapter 6: CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

24) Combustion: burning of fuel in presence of oxygen to give out energy.
25) Exothermic: a chemical reaction that releases heat to its surroundings.
26) Endothermic: a chemical reaction that absorbs heat from its surroundings.

Chapter 7: CHEMICAL REACTIONS

27) Activation energy: Minimum amount of energy needed for the products to be formed.
28) Catalyst: Substances that speed up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy
without getting used up in the reaction.
 29) Rate of reaction: a measure of the change which happens during a reaction in a single unit of
time.

Chapter 8: ACID BASE SALT

30) Acid: any substance that donates its H+ ion. pH less than 7
31) Base: any substance that accepts H+ ion. pH more than 7
32) Alkali: soluble base
33) Efflorescence: process during which a substance loses water of crystallization to the
atmosphere.
Acid + metal → Metal salt + H2 displacement/redox/exothermic
Acid + base (metal oxide/metal hydroxide) → Metal salt + H2O neutralisation/ hydroxide- titration
Acid + carbonate → Metal salt + CO2 + H2O
Acid + Bicarbonate → Metal salt + CO2 +H2O
Acid + sulphite or disulfide → Metal salt + SO2 + H2O
Acid + Sulfide → Salt + H2S

Titration:-
- 25 cm^ 3 of sodium hydroxide solution
- Pipette for greater accuracy
- Conical flask and add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator- if it turns pink then it is base and
if colourless then it is acid
- We use filtration funnel to avoid spillage
Chapter 9: PERIODIC TABLE
34) Alkali metals: Group 1 metals
35) Alkali earth metals: Group 2 metals
36) Transition metals: Found between Group 2 and Group 3
37) Noble gasses are obtained in large quantities by fractional distillation of liquid air

Chapter 10: METALS

38) Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals
39) Amphoteric hydroxide: hydroxide which can behave as acids as well as bases
40) Rust prevention: coating with plastic, painting, geasing, galvanisation (coating with zinc),
sacrificial protection (coating with a higher reactive metal).
Mild steel- car bodies and machinery
Stainless steel- chemical plant and cutlery

Chapter 11: AIR AND WATER (AMMONIA)

41) Fertilizers: a substance added to soil to increase the amount of N, K and P. helps in higher yield
42) Equilibrium: rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction.
43) Flue gas desulfurization: sulfur dioxide is removed from the waste gases by passing them
through calcium hydroxide slurry which produces calcium sulfate.

Chapter 12: SULFUR

44) Ore- ZnS, CuFeS2, volcanic regions, from natural gas and oil
45) Properties: does not dissolve in water
Low MP
Non conductor
Does Not dissolve in water
Reacts with both metal and non metal
46) Uses: to produce SO2
 Vulcanise rubber
Manufacture of matches, fireworks and fungicides
Sterilising agent
Medicines

Chapter 13: INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

47) Limestone → CaCO3
Slaked Lime → Ca(OH)2
Lime → CaO
48) Manufacture of Limestone (CaCO3): Ca(OH)2 (s) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
49) Uses of limestone: neutralization of acidic soil → powered limestone → cheap
Manufacture of iron and steel
Manufacture of cement and concrete

Manufacture of Lime (CaO)

Manufacture of Slaked Lime (Ca(OH2))
50) Manufacture of Lime (CaO): CaCO3 (s) → heat ← CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
51) Uses of Lime (CaO): neutralise soil acidity
Improve drainage of water
Neutralise acid waste
Drying agent
Manufacture of mouthwash
Making of soda glass
52) Manufacture of Slaked Lime (Ca(OH2)): CaO (s) + H2O → Ca(OH)2 (s)
53)Uses of Slaked Lime (Ca(OH2)): bleaching powder
Reduce soil acidity
Neutralising acid waste
Making of whitewash
Glass manufacture
Water purification
54) Properties of Carbonate (CO3): most metal carbonate thermally decompose
Generally insoluble in water (except Na, K, NH4)
Reacts with acid to form salt, CO2 and H2O
Preparation of CO2
55) Manufacture of CO2: by pouring dilute Hydrochloric acid on marble chips (CaCO3)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
56) Uses of CO2: Carbonated drinks
Fire extinguishers
Refrigerants
Special effects
Heat transfer agents
57) Properties of CO2:
Physical- colourless gas
Soluble in water
Denser than air
Odorless
Chemical- dissolves in water to form carbonic acid
Reacts with slaked lime to form limestone
Reacts with strong alkalis to from carbonates
Bonding (ch-3)
Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding Metallic Bonding

between ● Metal and non metal ● Two non metals ● Two metals

e- sharing Metals loses e- becoming Share e- Shed their outer e-

cation (+)
Nonmetal gains e-
becoming anion (-)

Diatomic elements: (Cl2,

H2, N2)

Single covalent: (H2, Cl2)

Double covalent: (C2, N2,
O2)

Structure 3D Lattice: a regular 3D Simple: Strong intra Sea of electrons

arrangement of atoms in a Weak inter 3D lattice
crystalline solid. Giant: Strong inter
Weak intra

Properties ● Solid at RTP ● Solid, Liq, Gas ● Solid

● High MP.BP ● High MP.BP ● High MP.BP
● Hard ● Hard ● -
● Electricity: Solid- No ● Electricity: solid: ● Electricity: conducts
molten: yes No, Molten: yes ● Malleable and
● Dissolves in water ● Doesnt dissolve in ductile
water

- Silicon Oxide: each O

atom bonded to 2 S atom
- Diamond: each O atom
bonded to 4 C atom
- graphite: each O atom
bonded to 3 C atom

Electrolysis chart
Anode Cathode

K+ SO42-

Na+ NO3-

Mg+ OH-

Al+ Cl-

H+ Br-

Cu+ I-

Ag+

Colours:
Compounds Colours

Group 1 and 2 salts White

Fe2+ green

Fe3+ red-brown

Cu2+ Blue

CuO Black

Cu2O Red

Anhydrous CuSO4 White

CuCO3 Blue-green

CuCl2 Blue-green

NO2 Orange-brown

Sulfur Yellow

F Yellow

Cl Yelow-green

Bromine Red-brown

Iodine S- black
L- orange-brown
G- purple

Bromine Orange brown

AgCl White

AgBr Cream

AgI Yellow

Copper Pink-brown
PbI2 Yellow

PbCl2 White

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSITION AND ALKALI:

TRANSITION METALS GROUP 1 METALS

Less reactive with water Vigorously reacts with water

High MPBP Low MPBP

High Density Low density

Harder and stronger than G1 and G2 Soft metals

Different oxidation states only form 1+ ions

Form coloured compounds Ionic compounds

Can be used as a catalyst Cannot be used as catalyst

Malleable, Ductile, Lustrous, Good conductor of Heat and Electricity

GAS and LIQUID TEST:

Test for Process Result use

NH3 Damp red litmus paper Turns blue

Cl2 Damp blue litmus paper Turns pink then bleaches

white

O2 Glowing Splint Re lits

H2 Lighting Splint Pop sound

CO2 Lime water test Turns milky/cloudy Refrigerant, fire

extinguisher

SO2 Acidified aq potassium Turns from purple to Bleaching agent,

manganate colourless disinfectant

H2O Cobalt chloride paper Turns pink

INDICATORS: FLAME TEST:

Indicator Default ACID BASES Ion Colour
colour
Li+ Red
Phenolphthal Colourless Colourles Pink
ein s Na+ Golden Yellow

Thymolphthal Colourless Colourles Blue K+ Lilac

ein s
Cu+ Bluish Green
Methyl Orange / Red Yellow
Ca2+ Orange Red
 Orange Red Ba2+ Greenish Apple

Litmus paper Red / blue Red Blue

SALTS:
Soluble salt Insoluble salt

1) All nitrates (NO3) -

2) All salts of Group 1. Ex: NaCl Most Carbonates except group 1

3) All ammonium salts (NH4) -

4) All halides (Group 7) except Silver halide, Lead halide

5) All sulfates (SO4) except Barium sulfate, Calcium sulfate,

Lead sulfate

6) All ethanoates CH3COO- -

Thermal decomposition table:

Making salts:
For MAZIT For least reactive (<tin) For most reactive (>Mg)

Acid + metal Acid + insoluble base Acid + soluble base (alkali)

Acid + metal carbonate

TEST FOR ANIONS:
For Process Result

Halide (bromide, ● Add, (dil) HNO3 + Silver Precipitate formed-

chloride, iodide) nitrate ● White- Chloride
● (to acidify) ● Cream- Bromide
● Yellow- Iodide

Nitrate (NO3-) ● Add, aq NaOH + Aluminium Fizzing (because of NH3)is

foil (heat) produced

Sulphate (SO42-) ● Add, HCl (dil) + Barium nitrate White precipitate (BaSO4)
● (to acidify)

Sulfite (SO32-) ● Add, HCl (dil) KMnO4 paper turns from purple
● Bring KMnO4 paper near it (test to colourless (because of SO2)
for SO2)

Carbonate (CO3-) ● Add, HCl (dil) Fizzing and limewater turns

● Limewater test of the gas milky (because of CO2)

TEST FOR CATIONS:

Process result

NH4+ ● Add, NaOH ● Pungent smell

(Ammonium) ● Heat ● pH 8-10
● Gas released ● Effervesence
● Test for gas ● Damp red litmus paper to blue

EVERY OTHER CATION

NaOH and NH4OH ● Add, NaOH or Precipitate

(dropwise) NH4OH ● White- Al 3+, Ca2+, Zn2+
● Green- Fe2+
● Red brown- Fe3+
● light Blue- Cu2+
● Green (NaOH) Grey green- Cr3+

NaOH ● Zinc ion ---> dissolves ---> colourless

(excess) ● Calcium ion ---> insoluble
● Aluminium ion ---> dissolves ---> colourless
● Copper ion —> insoluble
● Chromium ion —> soluble

NH4OH ● Zinc ion ---> dissolves ---> colourless

(excess) ● Calcium ion ---> insoluble
● Aluminium ion ---> insoluble
● Copper ion —> dissolves —> dark blue
● Chromium ion —> insoluble
IRON EXTRACTION (BLAST FURNACE)
● Ore- Hematite (Fe2O3) and Magnetite (Fe2O4)
● 700oc
step Process Equation Type of reaction

1) Coke burns with Air C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 redox

To get CO2

2) CO2 reacts with coke CO2 (g) + C (s) → 2CO endothermic

To get CO

3) CO reduces Fe2O3 to iron Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g) redox

4) Limestone reacts with CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (l) neutralisation
impurities to form slag

ZINC EXTRACTION (FROTH FLOTATION)

● Ore- Zinc Sulfide / Zinc Blende (ZnS)
● 1400oc
Step Process Equation

1) Zinc Sulfide roasted in air 2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
To get Zinc Oxide

2) Zinc Oxide is reduced using Coke ZnO (s) + C (g) → Zn (g) + 2CO (g)
To get Zinc and CO (heated)
Why is coke used?
- Reducing agent
- Reacts with O and form CO

3) ● Zinc is volatile -
● Gas is distilled
● Leaving less volatile
impurities behind

4) Zinc is condensed -
and liq is runned into a mould
It is a saturated solution- a solution containing the maximum amount of solute dissolved at a given
temperature

ALUMINIUM EXTRACTION (ELECTROLYSIS)

● Ore- bauxite (Al 2O 3) → 2000oc → cryolite used to lower MP → increases electrical conductivity
→ makes it economical
1) aluminium oxide electrolyte and graphite electrodes
2) Aluminium ions receive electrons at the negative electrode and are reduced to aluminium
atoms
Al3+ + 3e– → Al
3) The molten aluminium sinks to the bottom of the cell, where it is tapped off
4) Oxide ions lose electrons at the positive electrodes and are oxidised to oxygen gas
2O2– → O2 + 4e–
5) This oxygen reacts with the carbon of the positive electrodes, forming carbon dioxide
6) the positive electrodes have to be replaced frequently
METALS:
Reaction with WATER Reaction with OXYGEN Reaction with ACID

Metal + Water → Metal Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide Metal + Acid → Metal Salt +
hydroxide/oxide + Hydrogen Hydrogen

Cold water → Hydroxide Unreactive metals don't react

Warm water → Oxide

Group 1 → Cold water Group 1 react vigorously Group 1 react vigorously

Transition → Warm water Cu and Fe react slowly

OXIDES:
Non-metal oxides Metal

Acidic Oxides Hydroxides

Basic Basic

Group 1 soluble Group 1 soluble except Ca, Mg, NH4

DECOMPOSITION:
Group Metal Carbonate Metal Hydroxide Metal Nitrate

Group 1 Metals DO NOT DO NOT Metal Nitrite + O2

(except Lithium) DECOMPOSE DECOMPOSE

Group 2 Metal oxide + CO2 Metal Oxide + Water Metal Oxide + NO2 + O2
(Lithium and transition
metals)

MAKING OF AMMONIA: (haber's process)

Lab preparation: base + ammonium salt → salt + NH3 + H2O
Step Obtaining of Process and imp points Equation

1) Nitrogen Fractional distillation of liquid air -

2) Hydrogen ● Reaction between CH4 (g) + H2O (g) → 3H2 (g) + CO (g)
(Steam methane and steam methane + water ← hydrogen + carbon
Reforming) ● 750oc | 30 atm | Nickel monoxide

3) Ammonia ● Reaction between N2 (g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3 (g)

Nitrogen and Hydrogen Nitrogen + hydrogen ← Ammonia
● 450oc | 200 atm | iron
● exothermic
AMMONIA:
USES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

- making - Colourless gas - Ammonia is highly soluble in water.

fertilizers - Less dense than air NH3 + H20 → N4+ + OH-
- Manufacture - Sharp pungent smell
of nitric acid - Very soluble in - Ammonium salts get formed when
- Making water ammonia reacts with an acid.
explosives ZnS04 + 2NH4OH (g) → Zn(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
- Cooling
agent

MAKING OF SULFURIC ACID: (contact process)

Process Imp points Equation

1) Sulfur reacts with Dust, impurities and S (s) + O2(g) → SO2 (g)
Oxygen unreacted oxygen are Sulfur + oxygen → Sulfur dioxide
To give Sulfur Dioxide removed afterwards

2) Sulfur Dioxide reacts ● 450oc 2SO2 (g) + O2(g) → 2SO3 (g)

with Oxygen ● 2 atm Sulfur + oxygen ← Sulfur
To get Sulfur Trioxide ● Catalyst- Vanadium(v) Dioxide Trioxide
Oxide (V2O5)

3) Sulfur trioxide is added ● Very violent SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l)
to water ● Produces thick mist Sulfur + Water → Sulfuric acid
To get Sulfuric Acid Trioxide

4) Sulfur trioxide is H2SO4 (aq) + SO3 (g) → H2S2O7 (l)

dissolved in Conc. Sulfuric + Sulfur → Oleum
Sulfuric acid To get acid Trioxide
OLEUM

5) Oleum added to water H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (l)

to get Sulfuric acid of Oleum + Water → Sulfuric acid
required concentration

SULFURIC ACID:
USES OF DILUTE PROPERTIES OF DILUTE

- making fertilisers - H2SO4 + bases (NaOH and CuO) → Sulfates

- treating metals to remove oxidation (Na2SO4 and CuSO4)
- anodising aluminium - H2SO4 + CO3 → normal salt + CO2 + H2O
- acid in car batteries - H2SO4 + reactive metal → normal salt + H2
- making paints, dyes - Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 (used to
- common laboratory reagent prepare H2 gas)

USES OF CONCENTRATED PROPERTIES OF CONCENTRATED

- Making detergents - Removes water from anything

- Dehydrating agent - Acts as an oxidising agent
Reactivity series

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
Prefix- how many carbon atoms are present.
Suffix- functional group

Naming chart:
PREFIX SUFFIX

Name No. of Name Functional Family General

Carbon group Formulas
atoms

Meth 1 ane C-C Alkane CnH2n+2

Eth 2 ene C=C Alkene CnH2n

Prop 3 yne C≡C Alkyne CnH2n-2

But 4 ol -OH Alcohol CnH2n+1OH

Pent 5 anoic acid -COOH Carboxylic CnH2n+1COOH

Acid

Hex 6 yl.. ..Anoate -COO- Ester None

Hept 7 yl Alkyl CnH2n+1

Oct 8

Non 9

Dec 10
Fractionating column:

Temperature Use

Lovely LPG (refinery gas) <30 Bottled gas for cooking

and heating

People Petrol (gasoline) 30 Petrol in cars

Never Naptha 110 Chemicals

Kill Kerosene 180 Jet fuel, paraffin

Dogs Diesel 260 Diesel fuels

Or (Lubricating) Oil Oil, waxes, polishes

Funny Fuel Oil Fuel for heating, ships

Babies Bitumen (residue) 340 Bitumen for roads and

roofing

Properties
MORE NUMBER OF C ● High boiling point
● Not volatile
● Doesn’t flow (less
viscosity)
● Doesn’t ignite
LESS NUMBER OF C ● Low boiling point
● Very volatile
● Flows easily (very
viscous)
● Ignites easily

Saturated Unsaturated
A saturated organic compound has only single Called unsaturated because it is possible to
bonds between carbon atoms break one of the two bonds to add extra atoms
to the molecule

All single bonds in carbon atoms Double or triple bond in carbon atoms

C-C C=C C≡C

Alkane Alkene (2) and Alkyne (3)

Example: alcohol Example: carboxylic acid

Homologous group: elements that have same chemical properties

Alkene: (=)
tip

Formed Breaking large alkane ● Alkane molecules “crack” Dont take out
(catalytic molecules obtained from ● Passed over a mixture of more than
cracking) fractional distillation of aluminium and chromium oxide C2H4 or C3H6
crude oil. ● 500 deg cel
● 60 to 70 atm

Thermal Larger alkane ● Higher temperature than catalytic

cracking molecules can be more cracking
successfully cracked ● 800-850 deg cel

CnH2n
REACTIONS:
definition reaction
Combustion A reaction in which fuel Fuel + Oxygen -> CO2 + H2O + Energy
burns with oxygen in the air Fuel + Oxygen -> CO + H2O + Energy (soot-
that produces carbon unburnt C particles)
dioxide, water and energy.

Substituion One or more H atoms of Methane + chloride -> Chloro Methane + HCl
hydrocarbon/ alkane is CH4 + Cl2 -> CH3Cl + HCl
replaced by other atoms/ (in presence of UV light/ Sunlight)
groups of atoms. Eg:
halogens

Addition reaction- reaction in which only 1 product is formed

Hydrogenation ● Addition of Hydrogen (H2)

● 200 deg cel
● Nickel or platinum catalyst
● Convert to more saturated molecules (less
rigid, can flex, twist, closely packed)
● Increase in intermolecular force and raises
the melting point

Hydration ● To manufacture ethanol

● Water as steam is added to double bond in
ethene
● Phosphoric (v) acid (absorbed on silica
pellets)
● 300 deg cel
● Pressure: 60 atm
● Reversible
● C2H4 + H2O —> C2H5OH (ethanol)

Halogenation ● To check the presence of a double bond

(test for unsaturated between two carbon atoms
compounds)-bromine water ● Bromine dissolved in an organic
test solvent/water reacts with an alkene
● If alkene, bromine joins to the alekene
double bond
● Result: bromise loses its red brown colour
to colourless
● C2H4 + Br2 (sol) —> C2H4Br2

Hydrolysis ● Breakdown of polymer in presecne of water

● Enzyme hydrolysis: protein- protease
Carbohydrates- amylase
● Acid: dil. HCl and heat

Isomers: same molecular formula but different structural formula.

Polymers: (addition and condensation)
Each polymer molecule is
made up of smaller units called
monomers
polypropene propene

Addition polymerisation
● All covalent bonds
● Intermolecular forces in
melting and boiling
points– weaker than
covalent bonds
● High surface area–
loads of intermolecular
forces
● Higher MPBP than repeating units
simple molecular but
Lower MPBP than giant
molecular bigger molecules
● Solid at RTP
● Condition: Pressure
and catalyst

How to name: Put the word

‘POLY’ in front of the
monomer’s name and put the
monomer’s name in brackets.

Condensation polymerisation

compounds
dimer
remove OH from carboxylic
and H from monomer

remove
H and OH for repetition

reaction
Some condensation polymers:
POLYESTER POLYAMIDE

carboxylic acid + alcohol

C=O-O C=O-O C=O-O

TERYLENE NYLON 2 boxes repeating

C=O C=O N-H N-H

FAT PROTEIN all different boxes

N-H C=O N-H C=O N-H C=O

Natural polymers:
AMINO ACIDS
● Lots of amino acids
and add them together-
Polypeptide

● Polypeptide folds or ● Proteins:

combines with other - Can be combined in many ways
polypeptide-protein - Can do a range of things:
● Catalysing chemical reactions as enzymes
● Structure and strength to tissues

● Amino acid: ● The reaction of amino acid:

- Contains an amino - Adjacent amino acids join together through condensation
group and a carboxylic reactions
acid group

- OH from carboxylic group and H from amino group reacts

to form water
 - Joined together by
- C from carboxylic bonds with N from amino

(amide link/ amide bond/ peptide link)

CARBOHYDRATES
● Made of only Carbon, By combining monomers, we can make different polymers
oxygen and hydrogen
● Polymers
(polysaccharides):
Starch, cellulose and
glycogen
● Monomers
(monosaccharides):
glucose and fructose

Difference between addition and condensation:

Addition Condensation

Only one single product is formed Two products: polymer + water

Unsaturated Bifunctional monomers

Alcohol: (OH)
● Alkene to alcohol
● Hydration
● H3PO4
● 300 deg cel
● 60 atm

● Formation: Replace one Hydrogen

atom in alkane with -OH

● Name is similar to alkane- replace e

with ol
● CnH2n+1OH

Properties of first 4 alcohol almost the same-

● Flammable-
Can undergo complete combustion:

● Soluble:
Dissolve in water (neutral PH)
 ● Gives oxidsed carboxylic acid

Uses of alcohol:
● Fuels (releases lots of energy)
● Solvent in industry (dissolve things that
water cant)

FERMENTATION:
● Add water with yeast
● Renewable raw material is used

Carboxylic acid: (COOH)

● Formed: oxidise alcohol
which adds an oxygen
● Conc H2SO4
● KMnO4 (purple to colourless)
● Or K2Cr2O7 (orange to
colourless)

● Name ends in anoic acid

● CnH2n+1COOH

● Weak acid
● Dont fully ionise-

Reaction with metal carbonate

Esters: (COO)
Reaction: Carboxylic acid + alcohol —> ester + water
● Acid catalyst (H2SO4)

Properties: ● Pungent smell

● Volatile- evaporate easily
Uses: ● Perfume
● Food flavourings

Naming: Step 1) yl in alcohol’s prefix

Step 2) anoate in carboxylic’s prefix

Uses:
Compound Uses
Ethanol - Solvent
- Fuel
- Alcohol drinking, wine
- Varnish, polish
- Perfumes
PAPER 2 NOTES:

Tips:
● Read the whole question twice
● Check all options
● Underline whats given in excess (pH questions)

EXO ENDO
Exothermic Endothermic

Energy absorbed for bond breaking < energy Energy absorbed for bond breaking > energy
released in bond making released in bond making

Making salts:
For MAZIT For least reactive (<tin) For most reactive (>Mg)

Acid + metal Acid + insoluble base Acid + soluble base (alkali)

Acid + metal carbonate

FERMENTATION:
● Add water with yeast
● Renewable raw material is used

OXIDES:
Non-metal oxides Metal

Acidic Oxides Hydroxides

Basic Basic

Group 1 soluble Group 1 soluble except Ca, Mg, NH4

DECOMPOSITION:
Group Metal Carbonate Metal Hydroxide Metal Nitrate

Group 1 Metals DO NOT DO NOT Metal Nitrite + O2

(except Lithium) DECOMPOSE DECOMPOSE

Group 2 Metal oxide + CO2 Metal Oxide + Water Metal Oxide + NO2 + O2
(Lithium and transition
metals)

Solid liquid gas:

Solid: both melting and boiling points positive
Liquid: either one is positive
Gas: both negative

Iodine: purple (vapour)

yellow-brown (liquid)
Black (solid)