Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Institute of Engineering & Management

Department of Basic Science & Humanities

Workbook
(MATHEMATICS -II)

Paper Name with code: MATHEMATICS -II,

BSC104
Name of the Teacher: Prof. Krishanu Deyasi

Name of the Student:

Year: Section:
Class Roll No.:
University Roll No.:

1|Page Study Material, IEM, BSH Department

 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 1

Topics Covered: Vector Space.

Objectives: In the first Lecture of Vector Space or Linear Algebra, basic of Vector Space
will be discussed.

Vector Space is defined over a Field.

Field:
A non-empty set F forms a field with respect to two binary compositions + and ., if
i. a + b ϵ F ∀ c, d ϵ F,
ii. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c ∀ a, b, c ϵ F,
iii. there exist an element, called zero element and denoted by 0 in F such that a + 0 =
a, ∀ a ϵ F,
iv. for each a ϵ F, there exist an element, denoted by –a in F such that a + (-a) = 0,
v. a + b = b + a for any two elements a, b in F,
vi. a.b ϵ F ∀ a, b ϵ F,
vii. a.(b.c) = (a.b).c ∀ a, b, c ϵ F,
viii. there exist an element called identity element and denoted by I in F s.t. a.I = a ∀
aϵ F,
ix. For each non-zero element a in F there exist an element denoted by a-1 in F s.t. a.
(a-1) = I,
x. a.b = b.a for all a, b in F,
xi. a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c for all a, b, c in F
The field is denoted by (F, +, .), or by F.

Vector Space over a Field:

Let V be a non-empty set and ⨁ be a binary composition on V. Let (F, +, .) be a field and ⦿
be an external composition of F with V.

V is said to be a vector space over a field F if the following conditions are satisfied:
i. u ⨁ v ϵ V ∀ u, v ϵ V,

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

ii. u⨁v=v⨁u ∀ u, v ϵ V,
iii. u ⨁ (v ⨁ w) = (u ⨁ v) ⨁ w ∀ u, v, w ϵ V,
iv. ∃ an element θ (called Zero element or Null element) in V s.t. u ⨁ θ = u ∀ u ϵ
V,
v. For each u ϵ V, ∃ an element –u ϵ V s.t. u ⨁ (-u) = θ,
vi. c ⨁ u ϵ V ∀ c ϵ F, u ϵ V,
vii. c ⦿ (d ⦿ u) = (c.d) ⦿ u, for all c, d ϵ F & u ϵ V,
viii. c ⦿ (d ⨁ u) = c ⦿ u ⨁ d ⦿ u, for all c, d ϵ F & u ϵ V,
ix. (c + d) ⦿ u) = c + u ⦿ d + u, for all c, d ϵ F & u ϵ V,
x. 1⦿ u = u, 1 being identity element in F.

Subspace:
Let V be a vector space over a field F. A non-empty subset W of V is called a subspace of V
if W under the composition of V, is a vector space over F.
Theorem: A non-empty subset W of a vector space V over a field F is a subspace of V if
i. w1 ϵ W, w2 ϵ W => w1 + w2 ϵ W and
ii. w ϵ W, c ϵ F => cw ϵ W.
Theorem: The intersection of two subspaces of a vector space V over a field F is a subspace
of V.
Theorem: If V, W be two subspaces of a vector space V over a field F, then the union U ∪
W is a subspace of V iff either U ⊆ W or W ⊆ U.

Linear sum of two subspaces:

Let U and W be two subspaces of V. The subset U + W = {u + w: u ϵ U, w ϵ W} is said to be
the linear sum of the subspaces U and W.

Theorem: Let U, W be two subspaces of a vector space V over a field F. Then the linear sum
V + W is a subspace of V.
Theorem: The subspace U + W is the smallest subspace of V containing U and W.

Linear Combination: Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let v1, v2, …, vr V. A vector v
in V is said to be a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2, …, vr if v can be expressed as
v = c1v1 + c2v2 + … + crvr for some scalars c1, c2, …, cr in F.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Theorem: Let V be vector space over a field F and S be a non-empty finite subset of V. Then
the set W of all linear combinations of the vectors in S forms a subspace of V and this is the
smallest subspace containing the set S.
Note: The smallest subspace containing S is the intersection of all subspaces containing S.

Linear Span: The smallest subspace containing a finite set S of vectors of a vector space V
is said to be the linear span of S and is denoted by L(S).
L(S) is said to be generated (or spanned) by the set S and S is said to be the set of generators
of L(S).
If S = Ф, then L(S) = { θ}, since θ is the intersection of all subspaces containing Ф.

Theorem: If S and T be two non-empty finite subsets of a vector space V over a field F and
S ⊂ T then L(S) ⊂ L(T).

Theorem: If S be a non-empty subset of a vector space V over a field F then L(L(S)) = L(S).
Theorem: Let S and T be non-empty subsets of a vector space V over a field F. Then L(S ∪T)
= L(S) + L(T).

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Let V be the set of all ordered n-tuples {(a1, a2, …, an): ai ϵ R}. Let ‘+’ be a
composition on V, called ‘addition’ defined by
(a1, a2, …, an) + (b1, b2, …, bn) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, …, an + bn)
and c(a1, a2, …, an) = (ca1, ca2, …, can). Verify whether V forms a vector space or not.

Exercise 2: Let V be the set of all real polynomials of degree < n. A real polynomial f of
degree r is f = a0 + a1x + …. + arxr, where a0, a1, …, ar are real number.
Let + be a composition on V, called addition defined by
(a0 + a1x + a2x2 + … + amxm) + (b0 + b1x + b2x2 + … + brxr)
= a0 + b0 + (a1 + b1)x + (a2 + b2)x2 + … + (am + bm)xm + … + brxr if m < r
= a0 + b0 + (a1 + b1)x + (a2 + b2)x2 + … + (ar + br)xr + … + bmxm if m > r
= a0 + b0 + (a1 + b1)x + (a2 + b2)x2 + … + (am + bm)xm if m = r
and an external combination of R with V, called ‘multiplication of polynomials by real
numbers’ be defined by
c(a0 + a1x + …. + arxr ) = ca0 + ca1x + …. + carxr, c ϵ R. Verify whether V forms a vector
space or not.

Exercise 3: Let V be a vector space over a field F and let v ∈ V. Then show that the set W =
{cv: c ∈ F} forms a subspace of V.

Note: This subspace is said to be generated by the vector v and v is said to be a generator of
the subspace W.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Exercise 4: Let V be a vector space over a field F and let u, v ∈ V. Then show that the set W
= {cu + dv: c, d ∈ F} forms a subspace of V.

Note: This subspace is said to be generated by the vector u and v and {u, v} is said to be a
generator of the subspace W.

Exercise 5: Prove that U ⊆ U + W, & W ⊆ U + W.

Exercise 6: In R3, u = (4, 3, 5), v = (0, 1, 3), w = (2, 1, 1), t = (4, 2, 2).
Examine if (i) u is a linear combination of v and w,
(ii) v is a linear combination of w and t.

Exercise 7: Determine the subspace of R3 spanned by the vectors u = (1, 2, 3), v = (3, 1, 0).
Examine if w = (2, 1, 3), t = (-1, 3, 6) are in the subspace.

Exercise 8: Examine if the set S is a subspace of R3.

(i) S ={(x, y, z) ∈R3: x = 0},

(ii) S ={(x, y, z) ∈R3: x = 1},

(iii) S ={(x, y, z) ∈R3: xy = z},

(iv) S ={(x, y, z) ∈R3: x + y + z = 0},

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

(v) S ={(x, y, z) ∈R3: x + y + z = 1},

(vi) S ={(x, y, z) ∈R3: x + 2y - z = 0, 2x – y + z = 0},

(vii) S ={(x, y, z) ∈R3: x + 2y - z = 1, 2x – y + z = 2}.

Exercise 9: Let S = {u, v, w}, T = {u, u + v, u + v + w}, V = {u + v, v + w, w} be subsets in

a real vector space V. Prove that L(S) = L(T) = L(V).

Exercise 10: Examine if the set S is a subspace of the vector space R2x2, where

i. S={ [ ac bd ] : a + b = 0},

a b a b
ii. S= { [ ] [ ]
c d
: det
c d
= 0}.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 2

Topics Covered: Linear Dependence of Vectors.

Objectives: In this second Lecture of Vector Space or Linear Algebra, linear dependence
and independent vectors will be discussed.

Linearly Independent: A finite set of vectors {v1, v2, … , vn} of a vector space V over a field
F is said to be linearly independent if the following equality
c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cnvn = θ -------- (1)
has only trivial solution, i.e., c1 = c2 = ... = cn = 0.
The set is said to be linearly dependent if there exists c1, c2, …, cn not all zero in F s.t.
c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cnvn = θ

Theorem: A superset of a linearly dependent set of vectors in a vector space V over a field F
is linearly dependent.
Theorem: A subset of a linear independent set of vectors in a vector space V over a field F is
linearly independent.
Note: The set Ф is linearly independent.
Theorem: A set of vectors containing the null vector θ in a vector space V over a field F is
linearly dependent.
Theorem: If the set of vectors {v1, v2, … , vn} in a vector space V over a field F be linearly
dependent, then atleast one of the vectors of the set can be expressed as a linear combination
of the remaining others.
Conversely, if one of the vectors of the set {v1, v2, … ,vn} be a linear combination of the
remaining others, the set is linearly dependent.
Theorem: A set of vectors {u1, u2, … ,un} (ui ≠ θ, i=1,2, …, n) in a vector space V over a
field F is linearly dependent if and only if there exist a vector in the set which is a linear
combination of the preceding others.
Theorem (Deletion theorem): If a vector space V over a field F be spanned by a linearly
dependent set { u1, u2, … ,un }, then V can also be spanned by a suitable proper subset of { u1,
u2, … ,un } [That is, some vector can be deleted from a linearly dependent spanning set of V.]
Theorem: If S = { u1, u2, … ,un } be linearly independent set of generators of a vector space
V, then no proper subset of S can be a spanning set of V.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Examine if the set of vectors {(2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 2)} is linearly dependent
in R3.

Exercise 2: Prove that the set of vectors {(1, 2, 2) , (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1)} is linearly independent
in R3.

Exercise 3: Check the linear dependence of the vectors

i. {v, 2v, w},
ii. {u, v, w, v + w},
iii. {u, v, w, θ } .

Exercise 4: Let u1 = (1, 2, 0), u2 = (3, -1, 1), u3 = (4, 1, 1). Show that the set S = {u1, u2, u3} is
linearly dependent. Apply Deletion Theorem to find a proper subset of S that can generate
L(S).

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 3

Topics Covered: Basis and Dimension of a vector space

Objectives: In this Lecture basis and dimension of a vector space will be discussed.

Finite Dimensional Vector Space: Let V be a vector space over a field F. V is said to be
finite dimensional, or finitely generated if there exists a finite set of vectors in V generating
V.
Otherwise, V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Basis: Let V be a vector space over a field F. A subset S of vectors in V is said to be a bais of
V if
i. S is linearly independent in V, and
ii. S generates V.
Theorem: There exists a basis for every finite dimensional vector space.
Theorem (Replacement theorem): If { u1, u2, … ,un } be a basis of a vector space V over a
field F and a non-zero vector v of V is expressed as v = c1u1 + c2u2 + … + cnun, ci ∈ F, then if
cj ≠ 0, { u1, u2, … ,uj-1, v, uj+1, …, un} is a new basis of V. [That is, v can be replace by uj in
the basis.]
Theorem: If { u1, u2, … ,un } be a basis of a finite dimensional vector space V over a field F,
then any set of linearly independent vectors of V contains atmost n vectors.
Theorem: Any two bases of finite dimensional vector space V have the same numbers of
vectors.
Dimension: The number of vectors in a basis of a vector space V is said to be the dimension
(or rank) of V and is denoted by dim V.
Example: Dimension of R2 is 2, R3 is 3, …, Rn is n.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space of dimension n over a field F. Then any linearly
independent set of n vectors of V is a basis of V.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space of dimension n over a field F. Then any subset of n
vectors of V that generates V is a basis of V.
Theorem (Extension theorem): A linearly independent set of vectors in a finite dimensional
vector space V over a field F is either a basis of V, or it can be extended to a basis of V.
Theorem: If { u1, u2, … ,un } be a basis of a vector space V over a field F, then every vector
v in V can be expressed as a linear combination of u1, u2, … ,un in one and only one way.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Co-ordinate of vectors: Let B = { u1, u2, … ,un } be an ordered basis of a vector space V
over a field F. Then to each vector v in V there corresponds a well determined ordered set of
n scalars c1, c2, …, cn in F such that v = c1u1 + c2u2 + … + cnun.
The ordered n-tuple (c1, c2, …, cn) is said to be the co-ordinate vector of v relative to the
ordered basis R.

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Show that S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis of R2.

[Note: S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is called standard basis of R2.

Exercise 2: Prove that the set S = {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)} is a basis of R3.

Exercise 3: Find the dimension of the vector space Rmxn of all mxn real matrices.

Exercise 4: Show that dimension of the vector space P of all real polynomials is infinite.

Exercise 5: Find a basis for the vector space R3 that contains the vectors (1, 2, 0) and (1, 3,
1).

Exercise 6: Prove that the set S = {(2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 2)} is a basis of R3.

Exercise 7: Let V be a real vector space with {u, v, w} as a basis. Check whether {u+v+w,
v+w, w} is also a basis of V.

Exercise 8: Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of R3 where W {(x, y, z): x + y
+ z = 0}.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Exercise 9: Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of R3 where

W = {(x, y, z): x + 2y + z = 0, 2x + y + 3z = 0}.

Exercise 10: Extend the set {(1, 1, 1, 1), (1, -1, 1, -1)} to a basis of R4.

Exercise 11: Find the co-ordinate vector of u=(1, 3, 1) relative to the ordered basis B = {u1 =
(1, 1, 1), u2 = (1, 1, 0), u3 = (1, 0, 0)} of R3.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 4

Topics Covered: Linear transformation

Objectives: In this Lecture linear transformation or linear map will be discussed.

Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field F. A mapping T:V →W is said to be a
linear mapping (or a linear transformation) if it satisfies the following conditions:
i. T(v + w) = T(v) + T(w), ∀ v, w ∈V,
ii. T(cv) = cT(v), ∀ c ∈ F and all v ∈ V.
These two conditions can be replaced by the single condition:
T(cv + dw) = cT(v) + dT(w) ∀ c, d in F and all v, w in V.
Note 1: A linear map T: V → W is called liner mapping on V or linear operator on V.
Note 2: Linear map T: V → F is called linear functional.
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F and T: V → W be a linear mapping.
Then
i. T(θ) = θ’, where θ, θ’ are null elements in V and W respectively;
ii. T(-v) = -T(v), for all v ∈V.

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Check whether the mapping T: V → W defined by T(θ) = θ’.
Exercise 2: Let T: R3 → R2 be defined by T(x1, x2, x3) = (x1, x2, 0), (x1, x2, x3) ∈ R3. Check
whether T is a linear transformation or not.
Exercise 3: Let T: V → V be defined by T(v) = v, v ∈ V. Check whether T is a linear
transformation or not.
Exercise 4: Let P be the vector space of all real polynomials. The mapping D: P → P defined
by Dp(x) = d/dx p(x), p(x) ∈ P. Check whether D is a linear mapping.
Exercise 5: Let V be the vector space of all real valued continuous functions on the closed
interval [a, b] and let T: V → R be defined by
b

T(f) = ∫ f ( t ) dt, f ∈ V.
a

Exercise 6: A mapping T:R3→R3 is defined by T(x1, x2, x3) = (x1+x2+x3,

2x1+x2+2x3,x1+2x2+x3), (x1, x2, x3) ∈ R3. Show that T is a linear mapping.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 5

Topics Covered: Range and Kernel of a linear map, Rank and Nullity

Objectives: In this Lecture range and kernel of linear transformation or linear map will be
discussed.
Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let T: V →W be a linear mapping. The set of
all vector v ∈ V such that T(v) = θ’, θ’ being the null vector in W, is said to be the kernel of T
and is denoted by Ker T.
Ker T = {v ∈V: T(v) = θ’}
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let T: V →W be a linear mapping.
Then Ker T is a subspace of V.
Note: Ker T is also called null space of T and is denoted by N(T).
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let T: V →W be a linear mapping.
Then T is injective iff Ker T = { θ ‘}.
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let T: V →W be a linear mapping
and Ker T= { θ ‘}. Then the images of a linearly independent set of vectors {v1, v2, …, vr} in
V are linearly independent in W.
Note: If T: V →V be a linear mapping on V such that Ker T = { θ }, then a basis of V is
mapped onto another basis of V.
Image of a linear mapping: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let T: V →W be a
linear mapping. The images of the elements of V under the mapping T form a subset of W.
This subset is said to be the image of T and is denoted by Im T.
Im T = {T(v): v ∈ V}
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let T: V →W be a linear mapping.
Then image is a subspace of W.
Note: Im T is also called the range of T and is denoted by R(T).
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let T: V →W be a linear mapping
and {u1, u2, …, un} be a basis of V. Then the vector T(u1), T(u2), …, T(un) generate Im T.
Note: If Ker T = {θ} then the images of the basis vectors u1, u2, …, un are linearly
independent. In this case { T(u1), T(u2), …, T(un) } form a basis of V.
Nullity and Rank of a linear mapping:
Let T:V→W be a linear mapping. Then dim Ker T = Nullity of T and dim Im T = Rank of T.
If V be a finite dimensional then both Ker T and Im T are finite dimensional.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Theorem: Let V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces of the same dimension over a
field F and T:V→W be a linear mapping. Then T is one-to-one if and only if T is onto.
Corollary: If T be a linear mapping on a finite dimensional vector space V, then T is one-to-
one iff T is onto.

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: A mapping T:R3→R3 is defined by T(x1, x2, x3) = (x1+x2+x3,
2x1+x2+2x3,x1+2x2+x3), (x1, x2, x3) ∈ R3. Find Ker T and the dimension of Ker T.
Exercise 2: A linear mapping T:R3→R4 is defined by T(x1, x2, x3) = (x2+x3, x1+x3, x1+x2,
x1+x2+x3), (x1, x2, x3) ∈ R3. Find Ker T. Verify that the set {T(1,0,0), T(0, 1, 0), T(0,0,1)} is
linearly independent in R4.
Exercise 3: Find Im T and dimension of Im T where T: R3 → R3 defined by T(x1, x2, x3) =
(x1+x2+x3, 2x1+x2+2x3,x1+2x2+x3).
Exercise 4: Find the Im T for the mapping T: R3 → R4 T(x1, x2, x3) = (x2+x3,x3+x1, x1+x2,
x1+x2+x3), (x1, x2, x3) ∈ R3.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 6

Topics Covered: Rank-Nullity theorem

Objectives: In this Lecture one of most important theorem of linear algebra will be
discussed.

Rank-Nullity theorem : Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F and V is finite
dimensional. If T:V→W be a linear mapping then
dim Ker T + dim Im T = dim V.
In other words, the nullity of T + rank of T = dim V.
Theorem: Let V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces of the same dimension over a
field F and T:V→W be a linear mapping. Then T is one-to-one iff T is onto.
Corollary: If T be a linear mapping on a finite dimensional vector space V, then T is one-to-
one iff T is onto.
Linear mapping with prescribed images:
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. Let {u1, u2, …, un} be a basis of V
and {v1, v2, …, vn} be arbitrary chosen elements (not necessarily distinct) in W. Then there
exists one and only one linear mapping T:V→W such that T(ui) = vi for i = 1, 2, …, n.

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Prove that the linear mapping T:R3→R3 defined by T(x, y, z) = (x+y, y+z, z+x),
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 is one-to-one and onto.
Exercise 2: Determine the linear mapping T:R3→R2 which maps the basis vectors (1, 0 ,0),
(0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) of R3 to the vectors (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2) respectively.
Exercise 3: Determine the linear mapping T:R3→R3 which maps the basis vectors (0, 1, 1),
(1, 0 ,1), (1, 1, 0) of R3 to (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1) respectively. Verify that dim Ker T +
dim Im T = 3.
Exercise 4: Determine the linear mapping T:R3→R3 which maps the basis vectors (0, 1, 1),
(1, 0 ,1), (1, 1, 0) of R3 to the vectors (2, 0 ,0), (0, 2, 0), (0, 0, 2) respectively. Find Ker T and
Im T. Verify that dim Ker T + dim Im T = 3.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 7

Topics Covered: Composition of linear map & Inverse of a linear

transformation.

Objectives: In this Lecture composition of two linear maps will be discussed.

Let V, W, U be vector spaces over a field F and let T: V →W, S: W → U be linear mappings.
The composite mapping S0T: V → U is defined by S0T(v) = S{T(v)}, v ∈V.
The composition S0T is generally denoted by ST and it is also said to be the product mapping
ST.
Theorem: Let V, W, U be vector spaces over a field F and let T: V →W, S: W → U be
linear mappings. The composite mapping S0T: V → U is linear.
Definition: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. A linear mapping T: V→ W is said
to be invertible if there exists a mapping S: W→ V such that ST = Iv and TS = Iw.
In this case, S is said to be an inverse of T.
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. A linear mapping T:V→W is
invertible if and only if T is one-to-one and onto.
Theorem: Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. If a linear mapping T:V→W be
invertible, then the inverse mapping T-1: W→V is linear.
Note 1: The linear mapping T-1: W→V has the property that T-1T=Iv, TT-1=Iw.
Note 2: If T: V→V be an invertible linear mapping on V then the linear mapping T-1:V→V
has the property that T-1T=TT-1=Iv.
Definition: A linear mapping T:V→W is said to be non-singular if T be invertible.
Isomorphism: Let V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces over a field F. A linear
mapping T:V → W is said to be an isomorphism if T is both one-to-one and onto.
Theorem: Two finite dimensional vector spaces V, W over a field F are isomorphic if and
only if dim V = dim W.
Isomorphisms from V to Fn.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space of dimension n over a field F. Then V is isomorphic to Fn.
Theorem: Let V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces over a field F and T:V→W be an
isomorphism. Then for a set of vectors S in V,
S is linearly independent in V iff T(S) is linearly independent in W.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Note: Since V and W are isomorphic, dim V = dim W. Therefore S is a basis of V iff T(S) is
a basis of W.

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Let T:R2→R2 be defined by T(x, y) = (x, 0), (x, y) ∈ R2 and S :R2→R2 be defined
by S(x, y) = (0, y), (x, y) ∈ R2. Describe the mappings ST and TS.
Exercise 2: Let V be the vector space of all real polynomials p(x) and T: V→V is defined by
T(p(x)) = xp(x), p(x) ∈ V, D: V→V is defined by D(p(x)) = d/dx p(x), p(x) ∈ V. Describe the
mappings TD and DT. Are they equal?
Exercise 3: A linear mapping T: R3 →R3 is defined by T(x, y, z) = (x – y, x + 2y, y+3z), (x,
y, z) ∈ R3. Show that T is non-singular and determine T-1.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 8

Topics Covered: Matrix associated with a linear map.

Objectives: In this Lecture relation between linear transformation and matrix will be
discussed.

Let V and W be finite dimensional vector space over a field F with dim V = n and dim W =
m. Let T:V →W be a linear mapping. T is completely determined by its action on a given
basis of V. Let (u1, u2, …, un) be an ordered basis of V and (v1, v2, …, vm) be an ordered basis
of W.
T is completely determined by the images T(u1), T(u2), …, T(un).
Each T(ui) in W is a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2, …, vm.
Let T(u1) = a11v1 + a12v2 + … + am1vm
T(u2) = a21v1 + a22v2 + … + am2vm
…. … …..
T(un) = a1nv1 + a2nv2 + … + amnvm, where aij are unique scalars in F determined by the
ordered basis (v1, v2, … ,vm).
Let u = x1u1 + x2u2 + … + xnun be an arbitrary vector of V and let T(u) = y1v1 + y2v2 + .. +
ymvm, xi, yi ∈F.
T(v) = T(x1u1 + x2u2 + … + xnun)
= x1T(u1) + x2T(u2) + … + xnT(un), since T is linear
= x1(a11v1 + a12v2 + … + am1vm) + x2(a21v1 + a22v2 + … + am2vm) + … + xn(a1nv1 + a2nv2 +
… + amnvm).
Since {v1, v2, … ,vm} is linearly independent,
y1 = a11x1 + a12x2 + … +a1nxn
y2 = a21x1 + a22x2 + … + a2nxn
….
ym = am1x1 + am2x2 + … + amnxn

y1 x1
a 11 a 12 . .. a 1n

( )(
Or, .
.
y2

ym
= a 21 a 22
. .. . ..
a m1 a m2
. .. a 2n
. .. .. .
. .. a mn
)( )
x2
.
.
xn

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Or, Y = AX, … (1)

Where A = (aij)m,n, X is the co-ordinate vector of an arbitrary element v in V relative to the ordered
basis (u1, u2, …, un) and Y is the co-ordinate vector of T(v) in W relative to the ordered basis (v 1, v2, …,
vm).
(i) Is the matrix representation of the linear mapping T relative to the chosen ordered
bases of V and W.
If v = uj, then x1 = 0, x2 = 0, …, xj-1 = 0, xj = 1, xj+1 = 0, …, xn = 0; and y1 = a1j, y2 = a2j, .. ,
ym = amj.
Therefore the co-ordinate vector of T(uj) relative to the ordered basis (v1, v2, … , vm) are
given by the jth column of A.

a11 a 12 . .. a 1n
The matrix A =
(
a 21 a 22
. .. . ..
a m1 a m2
. .. a 2n
. .. .. .
. .. a mn
)
is said to be the matrix associated with the

linear mapping T relative to the chosen ordered bases of V and W. A is also called the
matrix of T relative to the chosen ordered bases.
Note: Corresponding to the chosen ordered bases the matrix A is uniquely determined,
since aij are unique scalars determined by the basis (v1, v2, … , vm).

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: A linear mapping T:R3 → R2 is defined by T(x1, x2, x3) = (3x1-2x2+x3, x1-3x2-
2x3), (x1, x2, x3) ∈R3.Find the matrix of T relative to the ordered bases
i. ((1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1)) of R3 and ((1,0),(0,1)) of R2;
ii. ((0,1,0),(1,0,0),(0,0,1)) of R3 and ((0,1),(1,0)) of R2;
iii. ((0,1,1),(1,0,1),(1,1,0)) of R3 and ((1,0),(0,1)) of R2.
Exercise 2: Let (u1, u2, u3), (v1, v2) be ordered bases of the real vector spaces V and W
respectively. A linear mapping T: V→W maps the basis vectors as T(u1) = v1+v2,
T(u2)=3v1-v2, T(u3)=v1+3v2. Find the matrix of T relative to the ordered bases
i. (u1, u2, u3) of V and (v2, v1) of W;
ii. (u1+u2, u2, u3) of V and (v1, v1+v2) of W.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Exercise 3: The matrix of a linear mapping T:R3→R2 relative to the ordered bases

((0,1,1),(1,0,1),(1,1,0)) of R3 and ((1,0),(1,1)) of R2 is (12 2 4

1 0 )
. Find the matrix of T

relative to the ordered bases ((1,1,0),(1,0,1),(1,1,0)) of R3 and ((1,1),(0,1)) of R2.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 9

Topics Covered: Inner Product Space.

Objectives: In this Lecture, Inner Product Space will be discussed.

The concept of magnitude of vectors and angle between two vectors in R3 can be generalized
by using the concept of Inner Product Space.

Definition of Inner Product:

Let V be a vector space over a field R. A mapping (,) from VxV to R is said to be Inner
product if it satisfies the following conditions:
(i) ( α, β) = (β, α ), for all α, β in V,
(ii) (cα, β) = c (α, β), for all c in R and for all α, β in V,
(iii) (α, β+γ) = (α, β) + (α, γ), for all α, β, γ in V,
(iv) (α, α) ≥ 0 for all α in V and (α, α) = 0 if α = 0.

A vector space V together with a Inner Product defined on it is classed Inner Product Space
and is denoted by (V, (,)).

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: If α = (a1, a2, a3) and β=(b1, b2, b3) be two vectors of R3 and product between two
vectors are defined as < α, β> = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3, Check whether (R3, <,>) is a Inner Product
Space.

Exercise 2: Verify whether the following in an inner product:

i. If u = (x1, x2), v = (y1, y2) in R2, then (u, v) = 6x1y1 + 2x2y2,
ii. If u = (x1, x2), v = (y1, y2) in R2, then (u, v) = x1y1 -2x2y2 -2x2y1 – 5x2y2,
iii. If u = (x1, x2), v = (y1, y2) in R2, then (u, v) = x1y1 + (x1 + x2)(y1 + y2).

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 10

Topics Covered: Inner Product Space continue...

Objectives: In this Lecture, Inner Product Space will be discussed.

Definition: Norm of a vector
Let u be a vector in a Euclidean space V with the inner product (,) the norm of u, denoted by
||u||, is defined by ||u|| = √(u, u).
Theorem: Let u be a vector in a Euclidean space V and ||u|| be its norm. Then
i. ||cu|| = |c|||u||, c being a rela number,
ii. ||u|| > 0 unless u = 0.
Schwarz’s inequality:
For any two vectors u, v in a Euclidean space V,
|(u, v)| ≤ ||u||||v||, the equality holds when u, v are linearly dependent.
Triangle inequality:
If u, v be any two vectors in a Euclidean space V, then ||u + v|| ≤ ||u|| + ||v||.
Unit vector: A vector u in a Euclidean space V is said to be a unit vector if ||u||=1.
If u be a non-zero vector in V, then u/||u|| is a unit vector.
Orthogonal vector: In a Euclidean space, a vector u is said to be orthogonal to a vector v is
(u, v) = 0.
The null vector θ is orthogonal to any non-null vector u and also it is orthogonal to itself.
This follows from the property of an inner product.
Pythagoras theorem: If u, v be two orthogonal vectors in a Euclidean space V, then ||u + v||2
= ||u||2 + ||v||2.
Parallelogram law: If u, v be any two vectors in a Euclidean space V, then
||u + v||2 + ||u-v||2 = 2||u||2 + 2||v||2.

A set of vectors {v1, v2, …, vr} in a Euclidean space is said to be orthogonal if (vi, vj)=0
whenever i ≠ j.
A set of vectors {v1, v2, …, vr} in a Euclidean space is said to be orthonormal if (vi, vj)=0
whenever i≠j and (vi, vj) = 1 if i = j.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Show that the vectors u = (1, 1, 1, 1) and v = (1, 2, -3, 0) are orthogonal, and
each of the vectors w = (2, -1, 0, -1) and x = (3, 0, 1, -4) is orthogonal to both u and v. Prove
also that z = (1, -5, -3, 7) is orthogonal to each of u, v, w.

Exercise 2: In an inner product space if (u, u) = (v, v) then prove that (u + v, u – v) = 0.

Exercise 3: Prove that the set of vectors {(1, 2, 2), (2, -2, 1), (2, 1, -2)} is an orthogonal basis
of the Euclidean space R3 with standard inner product. Express (4, 3, 2) as a linear
combination of these basis vectors.

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 Paper Name: MATHEMATICS -II Paper Code: BSC104

Lecture 11

Topics Covered: Gram-Schmidt process.

Objectives: In this Lecture, Gram-Schmidt process will be discussed.

Theorem: Every non-null subspace W of a finite dimensional Euclidean space V possesses

an orthonormal basis.
Proof (Gram-Schmidt process): Let {u1, u2, …, un} be a basis of W. An orthogonal basis
will be obtained by a method known as Gram-Schmidt process of orthogonalisation. Since
the basis vectors are non zero, we pick up one of them, say u1, and consider as the first
member of the new basis. For convenience we rename it v1.
v1 = u1.
v2 = u2 – (u2, v1)/(v1, v1) v1.
v3 = u3 – (u3, v1)/(v1, v1) v1 – (u3, v2)/(v2, v2) v2.

Let’s learn by doing:

Exercise 1: Use Gram-Schmidt process to obtain an orthogonal basis from the basis set
i. {(1, 1), (-1, 2)} of R2,

ii. {(2, 3), (4, -3)} of R2,

iii. B = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 3, 4)} of R3,

iv. B = {(1, 2, -2), (2, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0)} of R3,

v. B = {(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1)} of R3.

27 | P a g e Study Material, IEM, BSH Department