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HOME CULTURE THE IBALOY (IBALOI) PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES: HISTORY, CULTURE, CUSTOMS AND TRADITION [PHILIPPINE

INDIGENOUS PEOPLE | ETHNIC GROUP]

The Ibaloy (Ibaloi) People of the Philippines: History, Culture, Customs

and Tradition [Philippine Indigenous People | Ethnic Group]
1 YEAR AGO 
33 MINUTE

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"Ibaloy" is formed from the prefix i which denotes an ethnic group or people,
and baloy, which translates as "house," and thus refers to "those who dwell in
houses." In the Ibaloy language, i denotes origin or location, while baloy refers
to a specific location within the area.
Thus, the word also refers to "people from Baloy." Ibaloi, Inibaloy, Inibaloi, and
Nabaloi are variants. In Ilocano, "Ibaloy" also means "the language of
outsiders"; thus, Inibaloy is the "language spoken by the Igorot" from the
Ilocano perspective. However, the Ibaloy language incorporates aspects of
Ilocano and Pangasinan.

The Ibaloy are an ethnic group indigenous to Baguio and the

surrounding environs, which include the majority of Benguet, the
Pangasinan mountains, La Union, and Nueva Vizcaya. The Ibaloy
coexist with the Kankanaey and, to a lesser extent, the Kalanguya in
this area. The Ibaloy live primarily in Baguio and the towns of Kabayan,
Bokod, Sablan, Tublay, La Trinidad, Tuba, Itogon, and southern portions
of Kapangan and Atok—all of which are located in Benguet Province's
southeastern two-thirds. Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya, is primarily Ibaloy.

The Ibaloy people are strong, robust, and often fair-skinned. There is no

evidence in the traditions or historical records that these people were
descended from Limahong's invading armies, as some researchers hypothesize.
The Ibaloy population was estimated to be 15,000 in 1908. They numbered
131,916 in 2000, including 95,968 in Benguet. Additionally, they constitute
approximately 4% of the populations of Baguio (9,738) and Nueva Vizcaya
(16,017), and 1% in Apayao (979).

History of the Ibaloy People

 Ibaloy schoolgirls, Benguet (National Geographic, 1913, Mario Feir Filipiniana Library)

The Agno, Amburayan, Balili-Naguilian, and Galiano rivers determined early

Ibaloy agricultural and habitation patterns. According to a 1582 Spanish
expedition report, there were tilled plains and abundance of gold extracted in
Benguet. The extraction of gold was a key motive for the early settlement of the
Benguet highlands. The existence of jars, plates, beads, and brass gongs, which
were exchanged for gold and other goods, demonstrates that the Ibaloy had
contact with foreign traders prior to the arrival of the Spanish. Rice did not
appear to be a main meal until relatively recently; a 1624 expedition reported
eating yams, sweet potatoes, taro, maize, sugarcane juice, and sugarcane wine.
No rice paddies were discovered during an 1829 expedition.
During the Spanish time, Benguet had approximately 110 villages and another
100 in the distant mountain areas. Spanish conquest began in 1618, when King
Philip III dispatched a search party to the Philippines in search of Igorot gold in
order to finance his participation in the Thirty Years' War. Captain Garcia de
Aldana Cabrera with a troop of 1,700 reached the Boa mining town in what is
now Mines View Park in Baguio between March and May 1620. Residents of
Ibaloy had anticipated his arrival and wreaked havoc on their own town. Aldana
excavated the Ibaloy's buried timber and constructed Fort Santisima Trinidad, a
few dwellings, and a chapel. Fort Santiago was constructed in 1623 at the Santo
Niño mines and Fort del Rosario in 1625 at the Antamok-Itogon mines, but both
were quickly abandoned, as did the previous. In 1624, another military
expedition led by Don Alonzo Martin Quirante reconstructed Fort Santiago and
reached the site of the Fianza gold mines. Quirante returned to Manila with
5,600 kg of ore, which was later assayed in Mexico.

The Ibaloy's original approach to Spanish conquest attempts was to pretend to

submit to Spanish rule and then wait for an advantageous time to strike. As a
result, the Spaniards were able to enter the Cordillera interiors but were unable
to settle.

In 1759, the Spaniards entirely destroyed Tonglo town, a prosperous gold

trading center thought to have been located in Tuba near Baguio. The locals had
driven away a friar who had burned icons of native deities. Military occupation
resumed in earnest under Lieutenant Colonel Guillermo Galvey, who was
appointed Commander General of the Land of the Igorots and Northern Regions
of Pangasinan by the colonial government. In 1829, an expedition led by Galvey
set fire to 180 of Trinidad Valley's 500 dwellings. By 1883, the neighborhood
contained only 50 dwellings. Galvey's punitive raids on the Ibaloy resulted in
their initial listing as Spanish subjects.

Benguet was established as a comandancia politico-militar, or military-political

district, in 1854. Comandante Enrique Oraa compelled residents of the Acupan
mines to relocate to Baguio in order to facilitate control of the Ibaloy. Potatoes
were introduced to Trinidad Valley by Comandante Bias Banos in 1859, and
within a few years, Benguet potatoes were being sold in Manila marketplaces.
Comandante Manuel Scheidnagel proposed the following steps for the complete
pacification of the Ibaloy of Benguet in the 1870s: towns should be established
in areas with abundant natural resources to deter residents from abandoning
the sites; people should be required to dress "modestly"; and the District of
Benguet should be subject to the standard taxation system regardless of
whether its residents were baptized. The people of Benguet had been pacified
by this point: they had abandoned head-taking, tattooing, and armed
opposition. In 1898, following their defeat in the Philippine Revolution, the
Spaniards fled from the Cordilleras.
 Ibaloy elder, 2015 (Wayne S. Grazio, flickr.com/fotograzio)

Baguio, initially inhabited by the Ibaloy, was to become the backdrop for the
European concept of colonial "hill station" under the American rule. Its mild
environment made it an ideal sanitarium and temporary refuge from the
Philippine tropics' pressures. However, one of the Americans' long-term goals
was to mine for gold and copper. The early prospectors in the Suyoc-Mancayan
area and Baguio were discharged American troops from the Philippine-American
War.

Benguet became the country's first civil government entity in 1900. Baguio was
chosen as the capital. Despite early opposition from Filipinos and Americans,
Baguio would serve as the official summer capital for more than a decade
before World War I. During this time period, the US Supreme Court imposed a
deadline on the Ibaloy people to register their lands. Unregistered lands have
been designated as public lands. Those that complied grew wealthy, put their
children to school, and rose to positions of leadership in their communities. The
Cario, Carantes, Molintas, Pucay, Camdas, Piraso, Macay, Ismek (Smith),
Suello, Dimas, and Tagde families were among the Ibaloy families that
possessed rights to the Session Road area, Pakdal, Guisad, Lucban, Kennon
Road area, Loakan, Irisan, Asin Road area, Bening, Aurora Hill, Pinsao, and (or
Tagle). On the other hand, there were Ibaloy landowners who either refused to
participate in unfamiliar bureaucratic processes or were unaware of the new
procedure. They were displaced from their land by land speculators and lowland
immigrants.

The legal landownership system fundamentally altered Ibaloy political,

economic, and cultural life. Agriculture that was self-sufficient was supplanted
by land tenancy and the daily wage labor system. Vegetable cultivation by large
and small peasants was displaced by a capital-intensive agricultural sector. And
the barter system was phased out in favor of cash exchange. Village authority
gave way to civic governance, while Christianity undermined the indigenous
animistic faith.

45 square kilometers of land were purchased from Ibaloy families, but some of
the transactions were questioned afterwards by the indigenous owners. Daniel
Burnham, an architect and landscape designer, drew up the idea for a city with
a population of 25,000. In 1906, public lands were auctioned to lure residents
to Baguio. Wealthy families such as the Legardas, Palmas, Roceses, Ayalas,
Elizaldes, Roxases, and Romulos purchased residential lots. Soon after, iconic
structures and locations such as the Mansion House, Country Club, Teacher's
Camp, and Pines Hotel were built. Governor-General Cameron Forbes allocated
land to major government agencies in 1907 in order to advance Baguio's
summer capital status. Religious denominations such as the Jesuits,
Dominicans, CICM Belgian Fathers, Anglicans, Methodists, and Baptists began
purchasing or receiving land from Ibaloy proprietors as well. Baguio was
founded as a city in 1909 by the passage of Act No. 1963, which was drafted by
Justice George Malcolm, for whom Malcolm Square is named.

It used to take two days to go from Manila to Baguio, first by sea and then by
land. When the Kennon Road was built in 1905, travel time by land was
shortened to 30 hours. 46 nations contributed to the construction of this road.
Among them were Japanese and Chinese (mainly Cantonese) nationals who
settled in Baguio and married Ibaloy women. The marriage of Josefa Cario and
Ryukichi Hamada, the parents of novelist Sinai Hamada, is particularly
noteworthy. Kennon Road was also critical in delivering heavy equipment and
supplies to and from Manila, contributing to the early 1900s gold rush and the
1933–36 gold boom. Baguio Gold, Atok Big Wedge, Balatoc, Acupan, Antamok,
and Itogon employed thousands.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Baguio experienced fast growth as it developed into a
hub for educational, recreational, religious, military, administrative, and
economic activity. Additionally, the potential of trade drew a large number of
Batangueos to Baguio in the late 1920s, followed by East Indians in the 1930s.
After World War II, Kapampangan merchants arrived, primarily involved in shoe
retail and the sale of army surplus products. In the 1960s, Manila Chinese of
Fookien ancestry began to immigrate to develop hardware stores, motels, and
restaurants.

On 8 December 1941, the Japanese destroyed Camp John Hay as part of their
plan to cover the flank of their main landing force in Lingayen Gulf. As was the
case in the rest of the country, the American force in Baguio was caught off
guard, and the resulting panic prompted them to burn their equipment and
ammunition prematurely to avoid falling into the hands of the Japanese. On 28
December, Baguio was declared an open city. In October 1942, a joint Filipino-
American guerilla assault to recapture the city failed due to a lack of popular
support. By late 1944, Japan had already lost its wartime superiority, and
General Tomoyuki Yamashita chose to conduct defensive operations in Northern
Luzon's Central Cordillera. In Baguio, he established his headquarters. On 6
January 1945, the Americans began bombing Baguio. Following that, civilians
were forced to perform domestic activities in the evenings and take shelter in
the cathedral during the day. Thus, the church became a focal point for daily
activity and commerce. On 15 March, Baguio was subjected to its most intense
bombing. Only the cathedral and a few houses escaped the bombing, which
claimed numerous human lives. The following month, General Yamashita and
his staff departed Baguio for Cagayan Valley.

Baguio's postwar restoration also resulted in the city's consolidation as a

university city. Baguio Colleges was created in 1946, followed by the Belgian
Fathers' establishment of a collegiate department in 1952. In 1963, this became
Saint Louis University. In 1961, the University of the Philippines opened a
campus there as well.
 Colored houses in La Trinidad, Benguet, 2017 (Krisha Hyacinth Aviola)

Baguio is the capital city of the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), which
was established by Executive Order No. 220 on 15 July 1987. Baguio was
originally called Kafagway (grassy clearing), referring to the middle basin, which
today includes Burnham Park and the Baguio City Hall. The Ibaloy phrase bag-
yu (slimy water plant; Tag. lumot) was used to refer to the Guisad or Kisad
Valley's watery environment. Numerous Ibaloy place names, such as chanum
(water), kayang (high location), otek (little), chugum (windy), and abanao
(wide), have been kept in Baguio streets .

Nowadays, ancient rites and beliefs coexist with contemporary Christian

practices. For example, an Ibaloy wedding would take place in a Catholic
church, but the wedding arrangements between the two families, including the
wedding celebration, would still follow Ibaloy tradition. On the other hand,
younger members of the generation who study and work in urban centers such
as Baguio and Manila have developed an urban viewpoint, attire, and manners.
The Ibaloy’s Way of Life

Ibaloy farmer with kayabang, a native basket (Chit Balmaceda-Gutierrez)

The Ibaloy inhabit a mountainous and rocky environment that provides them
with small flat floors ideal for agricultural operations. They do, however, have
expertise in terracing mountain slopes and cultivating them with rice, their
staple grain from which tapey, also known as tafey or tapuy (rice wine) is
manufactured. Irrigation from mountaintops to lower levels is a feat of
engineering, with water being transported kilometers distant via troughs and
bamboo pipelines.

Sweet potato slices are dried and kept before being pulverized during times of
need, such as drought or food scarcity. Rice harvesting occurs twice a year.
Gabi and other tubers are grown as a source of additional food. Animal
husbandry is practiced for food and religious purposes. For rituals, the
indigenous black pig is preferred. Additionally, some gold panning occurs.
 Strawberries at Baguio City Market, 2016 (Philippine Primer Magazine)

Ibaloy gardeners and horticulturists are diligent. They cultivate strawberries and
a variety of vegetables, including cabbages, lettuce, turnips, cauliflower, beans,
carrots, and broccoli, to supply Manila and other cities around the Philippines
and Southeast Asia. When villages along the Hanselma Road began building
commercial vegetable farms in the 1970s, it transferred the center of vegetable
growing from La Trinidad to the Mountain Trail. After failing to compete with
indigenous industry, a number of lowland Filipinos and foreign capitalists work
as intermediaries, carrying crops to the plains or exporting them.
Dogs, spears, and nets are used to hunt deer. As they progress into the jungle,
the hunters bang their bolo against the wooden sheaths. Hogs are enticed into
trenches dug adjacent to camote farms. The axe, adze, bolo, hand spade, and
little peeling knife are all made by blacksmiths. Only in Daklan town is pottery
done, where little water jars are created. There is no indigenous tradition of
textile weaving; it was introduced in 1906 through public schools. The Ibaloy
have absorbed textile and weaving techniques from nearby Ilocano, Kankanaey,
and Isinay weavers.

Cattle was a sign of prosperity and distinction among the Ibaloy during the
period when Baguio and the surrounding territories were perfect for grazing.
However, its prominence diminished rapidly following the expansion and
urbanization of Baguio and the expropriation, sale, or donation of Ibaloy land.

Ibaloi Political and Sociological System

 Ibaloy women (The Nabaloi Dialect by Otto Scheerer. Bureau of Public Printing, 1905)

Historically, the baknang (affluent class) has control over the abitug, also
known as abiteg or ebiteg (the poor). Under the current election system, the
government official is often from the baknang or, if from the abitug, is under
the baknang's patronage.

Each village has its own tongtong (council), which is comprised of the baknang
and the village's wise men, known as impanama or pangamaen. Council
decisions are guided by custom law, which cannot be changed arbitrarily
without the village people's collective permission. Thus, while the baknang have
some influence over the impoverished, their authority is limited by the
tongtong.

Customary law regulates marriage, divorce, property, inheritance, contracts,

homicide, rape, assault, forcible entry, theft, witchcraft, slander, gambling,
abortion, and suicide. A man may divorce his wife for reasons such as infidelity,
irresponsibility or laziness, or belligerence. A woman may do the same thing,
with the exception of infidelity. A person who cultivates land owns it; it is then
inherited by his or her ancestors. Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, witches
were executed by strangulation with a rope. Slander was a capital offense
punishable by whipping. The thief was required to repay three times the value
of the stolen item or work for the owner at a wage equivalent to the
punishment. For homicide, the death penalty was imposed. Rapists were
compelled to host a caao (feast) for the victim; if both were single, they were
compelled to marry. Cases of assault were resolved through a caao or, if the
antagonists had marryable offspring, through a kaising or kaysing (betrothal
ceremony).

Today, the Ibaloy respect the national government's authority as embodied in

the governor, mayors, councilors, and other government officials in Benguet
province.

Social Organization and Customs of the Ibaloy (Ibaloi)

People

The Ibaloy traditionally have two social classes: the baknang and the abitug,
although a middle class of traders and wage earners has recently arisen. The
baknang possess two types of wealth: akon, which consists of family jewelry,
and property, which consists of rice fields, cattle, carabaos, or mines. The
peshit, a prestige feast provided by a baknang, serves as an economic leveler
by allowing the impoverished to partake in the host's surplus wealth,
particularly meat. It is, nevertheless, the baknang's foundation for power and
influence in the village. The peshit may last as long as the host's surplus wealth
does—which might be months.

The peshit also has religious importance, as it is considered to placate ancestral

spirits and gods who bring illness or disaster when their basic needs, typically
food and clothing, are not met by the living. When a poor family suffers from
illness or misfortune, they hold a smaller-scale ritual feast called the bayjok, or
"peshit of the poor."

Traditionally, kaising or contract marriages were arranged by parents, primarily

to cement the friendship of the two fathers. A compromise may now be
reached, with the man communicating his preference to his parents and
delegating final arrangements to go-betweens. Each case includes the
traditional bridewealth. Children born out of wedlock are eventually recognized
because the father is coerced into marriage when he is identified. The child is
given the name of a living grandparent or a two- or three-generation ancestor.

The ngilin (wedding ceremony) begins with the owik or ceremonial slaughter of
a pig, which is accomplished by inserting a pointed stick into its side and into its
heart without entering it. The manbonong or mambunung then prays over the
animal (priest). There is singing, dancing, and tapey consumption. On the third
day, the bride and groom visit a brook to wash their cheeks with water, praying
to the madmad: "May I be like you, water, that does not break year after year,
that does not die, but lives long." The bride holds a field basket and a shovel on
her back to represent her role as a field worker, whilst the husband carries his
bolo to represent his role as a builder.

The siling is the funeral ceremony for the dead, during which the corpse is
propped up on the asal (death chair), drained of all fluids, and healed with
smoke from a constantly burning fire. This wake continues as long as the family
has cattle, rice, and tapey available to feed the mourners. The funeral
procession is headed by the individual who is carrying the dried corpse on his
shoulder, while the mourners walk after him, each pounding a pair of sticks. The
corpse is placed in a coffin that is a foot shorter than its length, because it is
folded at the knees in the fetus position.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

 Ibaloy sacrificial meat (Bong Manayon)

Ibaloy cosmology is divided into three worlds: tabun, the skyworld inhabited by
humans similar to those on earth; aduongan, the underworld inhabited by
people with tails. Earthquakes occur when aduongan hogs brush against the
pillars.

There are sixteen culture heroes who are now worshiped as gods, all of whom
are invoked in the bindayan or bindiyan ceremony, and some of whom are
invoked in healing rituals: Kabigat, the Supreme Deity, Lumawig, Wigan,
Wigwigan, Amdagan, Balitok, Maodi, Moan, Bulian, Gatan, Montes, Daongan,
Bangon, Bangan, Obag, and Obagobagan

The transition from headhunting customs to more peaceful ritual conduct

parallels the transition to the relatively modern rice-terracing system. Similarly,
the position of Kabigat, patron of warriors and headhunters, was diminished in
importance in favor of Kabuniyan, also known as Kabunyan and Kavuniyan, the
supreme power and moral authority who, according to mythology, put an end to
headhunting. While Kabigat is related with the battle cycle, Kabuniyan is
associated with flood, mountains, thunder and lightning, day and night, rice,
gold, marriage, and death.

The kakaising, who live in the mountains, amdag, who live in the wind, ampasit,
who live in the forests, timungaw, who live in the sea, and pasang, who live in
the space between earth and heaven, are the evil spirits to whom prayers and
sacrifices are presented. Badiwan and Singan, two celestial spirits, have children
in the rice fields who deplete the fields' water supply and hence cause the
owner's illness. On the other side, it is thought that when a child is born, a
guardian spirit known as the kaajongan is also born in the sky and lives a
parallel life to that of the child on earth.

The kaleshing, also known as kedaring, kalashing, and kalaching (soul of a

deceased person), reunites with its ancestors on neighboring Mount Pulag,
where all spirits continue to dwell with family and other villages, wear the same
clothes, and have the same good and bad habits. The family members who are
still alive may change their names in order to avoid the deceased's soul visiting
them. When souls want anything from a relative, they visit through dreams or
mediums. When they reach old age, they cease to visit the living and transform
into butterflies.
There are two types of manbonong or shamans: female manbonong who
officiate at four distinct ritual rituals, namely peshit, chawak, bayjok, and
kosdey, and male manbonong who officiate at all other rites. They are
responsible for selecting and training their successors. Illness is caused by
either malevolent spirits or ancestor spirits communicating their want for food
and clothing. The manbonong conducts divination ceremonies to ascertain the
type of ritual required to heal the ailment. The Ibaloy have forty distinct rituals,
each one dealing with a particular aspect of health, war and peace, witchcraft,
birth, death, and agriculture. Each ritual is typically accompanied by dances and
songs. Thus, celebrations are also kinds of public religion.

Ibaloy Dwellings, House Construction and Community

 Ibaloy ancestral house in Itogon, Benguet, 2015 (Albert Salvatierra)

Whereas houses used to be dispersed, with vast tracts of land and mountains
separating them, settlements now consist of many houses that form real
villages or towns, the members of which belong to the same lineage. However,
more than any other Cordillera group, the Ibaloy still tend to build their houses
far from one another in the middle of fields within the village area.

The traditional house of the elementary family, which is the social unit, consists
of one room 6 x 8 meters, roofed and walled with thatch. It stands on inam-am
or talekem (posts) 1.6 meters from the ground. The door is oriented toward the
north or east. Mortises and grooves, instead of nails, are used to fasten the
boards and timber together; rafters are tied to joists with rattan strips.
Entrance to the house is by a ladder that is pulled up and inside at night. The
wealthy keep a large cauldron underneath the house to be used in the grand
feasts called the peshit or cañao.

In the middle of the room is a low dining table, the dulang. When not in use,
this stands on one end, leaning against the wall so as to make room for
sleeping. Deer or cowhide is used as a mat. Chairs are blocks of wood. Cooking
vessels are hung from hooks or placed atop stones in the house. Also hanging
from hooks are baskets of various shapes and sizes, in which different kinds of
food to be cooked are stored. There is an earth-filled box used as the hearth.
Above this is a bamboo rack or a garret where rice or root crops are dried and
stored, or fruit is placed to hasten ripening.

The Ibaloy have been affected by modern ideas of house building more than
any other Igorot group. Since the American colonial period, the thatch has been
replaced: the floor and walls by pine board and the roof with galvanized iron.
The family sleeps on native beds or on wooden floors.

Ibaloy Tattoo Traditions, Attire, Arts and Crafts 

 Ibaloy schoolgirls in traditional attire (National Geographic, 1913, Mario Feir Filipiniana Library)

In olden times, both men and women used bark cloth to cover their private
parts and, until the Spanish colonial period, wore batek (tattoos). The ink used
is made of pig’s bile and biyog (soot). The favorite design was the lizard figure,
the Ibaloy symbol for the anito (ancestral spirit). Originally meant to identify
one’s tribal origins, tattoos now have a purely ornamental purpose.

The weaving industry was introduced to the Ibaloy in the early American
colonial period, specifically in 1906. Therefore, blankets that were found in old
coffins were probably bought from the Kankanaey. Presently, the weavers of
Baguio produce a great amount of textiles for tourists and have established a
reputation for their preferred color combinations: red-black-and-white or red-
black-and-yellow.

The older generation of men wears a kobal or kuval (loincloth or G-string) and
the modern coat. Loincloths are traditionally dark blue for old men or the dead,
white with narrow blue borders also for old men, and white with narrow yellow
borders for young men. Red is also commonly used. The head cloth is now
outmoded. The men wear their hair short and are clean-shaven, the beard
pulled with bamboo tweezers.

Blankets are draped over the shoulders. The wealthy man’s blanket is white
with dark blue designs, such as stylized figures of human beings, snakes,
mortars, shields, diamond-shaped eyes, or other geometric shapes. No
ornaments are worn except in very remote districts where the men wear leg
bands called baney, made of fur from a dog’s tail.
The women wear brightly colored costumes consisting of the kambal (jacket),
the eten or aten, also called dibit or divit, a wraparound skirt with broad
horizontal bands of different colors, and a donas (belt). Color combinations are
red and black, white and dark blue, or white and red. Checks and stripes may
alternate on both the skirt and jacket. Usually attached to the neck and
shoulders of the jacket is a checkered flap. The women have bangs and their
hair hangs loosely down the back.

Brass necklace called balituk (Photo by Masato Yokohama, Maramba 1998)

The akon includes complex necklaces adorned with coins from the Spanish and
early American periods, tabing (earrings), karing (bracelets), bideng or anas
(beads), and shekang or chakang (mouthpiece), which is made either of gold or
copper hammered into shape to fit the teeth. The ling-ling-o is a gold, silver, or
copper ornament that is formed like an almost closed C and worn as a pendant
on a necklace or an earring. An Ibaloy variant has been found which depicts a
pair of human figures facing each other in a seated position, with their knees
bent up and their hands on their knees.

Simpler necklaces are made from obukay and takdian seeds taken from a reed
plant. A tree bark called kalet or defay is used as soap, and a kind of clay called
degdeg or duvas is used as shampoo. Traditional weapons, harking back to a
life of tribal wars and headhunting practices, are the kayang (spear), kalesay
(shield), bekang and pana (bow and arrow), and pa-pa (war club). Existing
Ibaloy shields bear a carved human figure in low relief. One unique carving on a
shield has a three-dimensional head on the upper end.

Basket weaving is done by the men. The women’s favorite basket is the
kayabang, (see logo of this article). Made of closely woven bamboo or rattan
strips, it is conical. Its base consists of four sticks tied together with rattan. The
epid or rope or finely woven band is inserted into holes near the opening so that
it can be strapped against the forehead and the basket can be suspended at the
back. The men’s bamboo or rattan basket is the pasiking, which is trapezoidal
and has a lid. The finely woven strap is slung around the shoulders so that the
basket is worn like a knapsack.

The shage consists of two finely woven bamboo or rattan covers meeting at the
center so that the result is a square basket. There is a pouch consisting of three
sections that are joined by a sling. It is made of split bamboo strips woven in a
herringbone design, but the cover is rimmed with woven rattan. The sling is
made of braided fibrous material. The Ibaloy also weave the rice winnower and
the dagba, a deep basket for keeping pounded rice.

Ibaloy wood carving is utilitarian, hence plain and simple. The palting is a
wooden pouch with an elliptical base and smoothly curving sides. It is slung
over the shoulder with a braided fibrous material. The top of the cover is curved
downward so that it fits snugly under the armpit. The plainness of the pouch is
broken by a simple border design carved on the rim of the cover.

Some houses bear ornamental friezes of stylized human and animal skulls, such
as those of a pig, carabao, cow, and deer. These are meant to signify family
status, a warrior’s prowess, or sacrifices made by the house owner.

Baguio’s climate and historical development has also made it a haven for many
visual artists. Benedicto Cabrera, together with Kidlat Tahimik, David Baradas,
Santiago Bose, Ynong Geslani, and Roberto Villanueva, established the Baguio
Arts Guild (BAG) in the late 1980s. Around the same time, the Arts Foundation
of the Cordilleras (AFC) under Divina Bautista of the University of Baguio was
founded. Several arts workshops paved the way for the 1st Baguio Arts Festival
under Baradas in 1989. Known art spaces in Baguio then were the Baguio
Convention Center, Maryknoll Ecological Sanctuary, Tam-awan Village, and the
Botanical Garden. More recent arts spots are the Victor Oteyza Community Art
Space (VOCAS), Arko ni Apo, Iggy’s, and the BenCab museum. Café Amapola
and Café by the Ruins have also become art sanctuaries. Since 1997, Baguio’s
biggest tourist attraction has been the Panagbenga or Flower Festival, which
features street dancing and huge floats with figures made of flowers.
Ibaloy Myth and Legends
 Ibaloy underworld man shooting an arrow into the skyworld, but hitting the sun instead (Illustration by Luis Chua)

Ibaloy literature has an abundance of prose narratives: cosmogonical myths,

origin myths, trickster tales, fables, and tales reflecting their beliefs and
customs. Origin myths include those about the origin of Ibaloy culture,
ceremonies, and animals.

An Ibaloy genesis tale tells of the enmity between the people of the skyworld
and those of the underworld when the earth did not yet exist. One day, a man
of the underworld shot an arrow into the skyworld and hit the sun instead.
(Another version explains that the arrow was shot by a hunter of the
underworld who had meant to hit a bird in the sky.) So the sun created the
earth to stand between the two warring worlds. The people of both worlds
would come to earth to hunt. But one day, they fought a raging battle over a
deer and left for dead a man from the skyworld and a woman from the
underworld. The two tended each other, recovered, stayed on earth, married,
and had many children. So began the first people on earth.

Part of the Ibaloy’s rice-planting ceremony is the ritual recounting an origin

myth about how Kabuniyan of the skyworld obtained rice from Maseken of the
underworld. Kabuniyan threw a spear at a deer that jumped into black waters,
but he hit the roof of Maseken’s house instead. When he pulled up the spear,
there was a stalk of rice attached to it. A low voice from the house under the
water accused him of having stolen Maseken’s palay. After hearing Kabuniyan’s
explanation for the transgression, Maseken instructed him to plant the palay in
the field and to invoke his name every harvest time.
 Two large snakes devouring people (Illustration by Luis Chua)

The bindiyan ceremony, according to another origin myth, began with the
people of Buguias, who responded to the call for help made by the people of
Kabal because of two large snakes that were devouring the people. Before
setting out, the people of Buguias first asked the manbonong to perform the
sagawsaw, a ceremony that takes away the soul of the enemy to make it sleep
soundly. The warriors of Buguias killed the snakes and cut off the snakes’
heads. On their way back to Buguias, the victorious warriors stopped several
times to dance around the snakes’ heads. This was the first bindiyan, which
Buguias has celebrated since then.

The peshit first began when, according to myth, Kabuniyan commanded three
brothers to hold one because they had grown rich. The belief that the rich will
obtain more riches after a peshit is illustrated in a folktale that ends with the
moral: “The more he gave away, the more he had.”

Fables like one about the dog that ate the cat’s food also reveal Ibaloy cultural
practices. The cat warned the dog not to be too greedy or else it would end up
as the ritual food for the death ceremony of their master, who was sick and
dying. After a week, the cat’s word was proven true, and the dog, which had
not heeded the cat and had become fat, was killed for the death ceremony.

One tale demonstrates the necessity of mutual dependence between the rich
and poor classes in a village. One day the rich and the poor of a village
quarreled, and they decided to live separately. The poor people were
malnourished because they had no meat, which they could get only when the
rich had their peshit. The rich lost their property because they had no one to
help them. When they celebrated the peshit, they could not do anything
properly because they did not have the necessary equipment, such as the
firewood or the rattan strips with which to tie the ritual animals. So in order to
survive, the rich and the poor reunited.
Music and Ritual Dances

Musicians from Baguio (A Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Philippine Islands, American Historical
Collection, 1902)
Musical instruments are played for either of two purposes: religious occasions or
entertainment. Considered sacred and not to be played for fun are those that
are used for the ritual feasts and played only by older men: drums, gongs, and
iron bars. The drum is a round piece of wood, made of either a hollow or
hollowed-out tree and a piece of deerskin stretched across it. There are two
kinds of drums, both conical shaped: the solibaw, which has a higher note and
is played with both hands, and the kimbal, which is played with one hand. The
two kinds of gangsa (flat bronze gongs) are the kalsa, which has a high clear
sound, and the pinsak, which has a lower, coarser sound. These are hit with the
pitog (wooden stick). The palas, also kolas or tiktik, are a pair of iron bars that
are struck together. The pakkong or pekkung, played by women to ward off evil
as they walk to and from camote fields, is a bamboo percussion instrument held
in one hand and struck against the other palm. Traditionally, the pakkong was
played while walking on trails going to and from the fields to keep away the
ampasit.

The other instruments are used for entertainment. The palkong is a bamboo
stick tapped on any surface. The ko-ding or ka-ding (mouth harp) is a small,
thin piece of copper or brass, placed between the lips or teeth; it has a tongue
that is made to vibrate in the mouth cavity. The kuleseng is a nose flute. Two
instruments noted in 1920 but no longer seen are the kambitong, also known as
kalchang or kambatong, a native guitar made of split coconut shell with a
bamboo joint as resonator, its cord a strand of horse’s tail stretched tautly over
it; and the tuladi (nose flute) made of bamboo joint.

The two most important musical forms are the ba-diw or badio, which is vocal
music rendered in leader-chorus style, with the rhythmic beat of the gangsa and
solibaw. The pinsak is played in contrapuntal rhythm to the solibaw beat, while
the kalsa provides improvised rhythm. In a peshit, the instruments are played
in a certain sequential order. The kimbal begins with a regular rhythm and is
followed by the solibaw, which begins with the same initial beat then gradually
adds rhythmic variations. The third sound comes from the pinsak, which is
played with an alternation of ringing and dampened sounds. The fourth sound is
the kalsa, which provides what comes closest to a melody because the player is
free to improvise as creatively as he pleases. Hence, while the solibaw provides
the fixed beat, it is the kalsa that is played in varying positions, rhythms,
volumes, and with different parts of the body, such as the elbow or the wrist, or
with a stick. The palas provides the fifth and last sound, which is a series of
quick, light beats. It is matched by the quick, mincing steps of the dancers.

Different songs are sung during the various ceremonial feasts. The ba-diw
comes in different forms: as advice extemporaneously chanted to a couple
being wed, as an inebriated old man’s account of his adventures and
experiences, or as a debate between two old men. The ba-diw’s refrain is
chanted by the women. The do-jeng is a recounting of the virtues or good deeds
of a deceased person as the mourners sit around the funeral chair during the
kafi, a ritual honoring the deceased. Non-indigenous songs or songs with foreign
influences are called kansion.

The angba is sung by participants of the bindiyan ceremony: the manbonong,

four olol or urol (traditional leaders of the bidiyan), and a few invited neighbors.
The 16 culture heroes or deities are invoked, beginning with the war god Maodi:

Sipay anangipangdu?
Si Maodi a maksil,
Ya mayingit toy busol,
Mayingit toy kadaloy,
Mahantoy maata i busol,
Mahantoy dadalaan.
Sipay anmangikadua?
(Who was it who did this first?
Maodi, a head taker,
Who fought with the invader,
Fought with the enemy,
Ate uncooked the invader’s [flesh],
Ate it bloody.
Who was it who did this next?)

This stanza is repeated 15 times, each time substituting the name of the other
gods. The original angba has 27 stanzas, but since 1935, only the first is sung.
Meanwhile, Ibaloy hunting songs are sung during hunting trips. The following is
an example (Eugenio 1982):

Sedag, sedag ken bulan

Pan-akchan kod kaptangan
Bolo, boloy pachenan;
Bato, batoy katinan.
Bangon, bangon ka, Ina,
Ka panduto ni aba
Sikdofën kod kaptangan,
Isirak ni ku-bilan.

(Shine, shine mister moon

[To light] my way to the lowlands.
Bamboo, bamboo is what I hold;
Stone, stone is where I step.
Wake, wake my mother;
You go cook my gabi
For lunch in the lowlands,
I will eat it with deer meat.)

Ritual dances and songs at the peshit and other public gatherings mime social
relationships and at the same time assume the presence and participation of the
anito. The tayaw is a type of dance in which one man, with a blanket slung on
each of his shoulders, and one woman wrapped with a blanket, dance inside a
circle. They are prominent members of the community, having sponsored at
least one peshit before. The man begins the dance by stretching his arms
sideways, and in a standing position, flexes his arms and knees according to the
beat of the kalsa. He suddenly charges forward, arms stretched to the back,
body bent forward. He suddenly stops and resumes his first position. These two
movements are repeated. In the meantime the woman’s arms are stretched
sideways, which she flexes up and down while making mincing steps in a
standing position. She moves away from the spot only when the man moves as
if to pursue her. The pair passes on the dancing to others by transferring their
blankets to the kalsa player, who then passes on the blankets to the next pair
of dancers. The dancers are believed to represent the ancestral spirits who
participate in the peshit.
 Ibaloy performing the tayaw (Carl Taawan)

Some rituals reveal residual characteristics of ngayew or head taking. One of

the most interesting dances of the Ibaloy is the bendiyan, which is a simulated
head-taking raid. Once a victory dance after a successful head-taking
expedition, it is now a festival dance for good fortune or good harvest, or to
cure the illness of a warrior’s descendant. The centerpiece of the dance is a
symbolic head carved out of a fern tree. The ritual begins at nightfall when the
manbonong leads four olol and other men to a secluded place. They bring with
them their ritual paraphernalia such as spears, shields, hatchets, heirloom
beads, and the animal for the ritual offering. The manbonong leads an opening
prayer, and then the headman recites the da-tok (the call of the blessings). The
owag (war cry) is shouted twice to begin the war dance, which centers around a
fern tree. The men simulate the actions of battle, with the fern tree as the
enemy. After they have “killed the enemy” with their spears, they then carve its
trunk into the image of a human head and march home with it, singing the
angba. They are met by the village people, and more owag are shouted. The
people then dance the sedsed all day around the “head,” which has been placed
in a basket and suspended from a headpost.
The sedsed consists of seven dance positions, each begun by a war cry shouted
by the bagnos (leaders). At the cry of “Dimbaban!” (Deploy and observe!), the
dancers spread their arms with palms downward, simulating the tigwi bird when
it swoops down on its prey. The second movement has the people making four
circles inside one another. The music players are the hub, the girls make up the
first inner circle, the boys the second, the women the third, and the men the
outermost one. At the cry of “Jinungjungan!” (Watch over!), the dancers extend
their arms forward, palms downward, facing the inner circle. Hence, each circle
“protects” the inner one, while the musical instruments, which symbolize Ibaloy
culture, remain at the center. At the cry of “Kinetangan!” (Palms on waist!), the
dancers do as directed to signify satisfaction. At the cry of “Salawasaw!” (an
archaic word), they raise their arms in victory. At the cry of “Kine-kian!” (a
taunt or challenge), they stretch their left arm forward with the thumb up, while
the right arm is half-folded. At the cry of “Pina-josan!” (Fix with the hands!),
they fold their arms in front with the palms upward. At the cry of “Inabaya!” (an
archaic word), the dancers relax with their hands on their waists, palms
outward. All these movements can be repeated in nonsequential fashion. The
dancing stops when the manbonong says so, and the people shout the final
owag.
 Panagbenga 2013 float parade (Ash Velasco)

During the American colonial period and thereafter, Western forms of music,
including country music, dominated the radio waves contributing to the spread
of popular music that may have inspired Ibaloy pop songs.

Ibaloy Culture featured in Media Arts

Popular Ibaloy music began in 1973 when Rod Danggol recorded “Nonta
Cauutek Ta” (When We Were Young) to the tune of Hank Thompson’s
“Blackboard of My Heart.” Danggol, Morr Tadeo, Conrado Dalis, Cole Mendoza,
and Genar Pacheco were the pioneers of commercial Ibaloy songs. Danggol
organized the Harmonizers, a five-member band which included three blind
musicians, in Baguio. Makati-based recording company Carver Studios produced
the group’s first single, with an initial press of 1,000 45-rpm records. These
were sold to Baguio restaurants with jukeboxes, particularly the eateries that
surrounded the vegetable, also known as Hangar market. Other copies were
sold in record stores like the Alpha and Tucucan on Lakandula Street, the part
of Baguio where the Igorot usually congregate. By 1976, Danggol had already
five singles.

In the late 1960s and 1970s, when Ilocano songs were popular in Baguio,
Euphronio “Morr Tadeo” Pungayan recorded “Nanlapoak de Kalahan” (I Came
from Kalahan) in the Kalanguya language, and an adaptation, “Enah-khas Malay
Saya” (A Tear Fell). Pungayan recorded five songs on 45s marked Highland
Records, with the help of Manila musicians and sound engineers. Pungayan
produced eight records from 1974 to 1976, with songs in English, Ibaloy,
Kalanguya, Ifugao, Kankanaey, Ilocano, and Japanese. Local singers like
Pungayan were invited to sing live in Baguio City RPN-DZBS program “Midday
Jamboree.”

Singer Raul Beray was popular in the area in the 1980s. He has nine albums to
his name. Rio Cariño and Jun Garcia during this time were the leading producers
of albums that included their own songs. They also do music video production
and are currently reviving previously enjoyed songs by transforming them to
videoke format. The most popular songs in Ibaloy are patterned after Western
country music.
Female musicians include Josefa Botangen Ognayon, who rendered an all-Ibaloy
album, Baley Shima Shontog (Home on the Mountain), and Abelyn Luboa, who
sang duets with composer Roy Basatan. Popular Kankanaey singers who have
sung a few songs in Ibaloy are Lourdes Gomeyac, Amy Guesdan, and Annie
Galliega.

Before television came to the Baguio-Benguet area, radio was the dominant
mass medium in the region. The Mountain Province Broadcasting Corporation
(MPBC), established by the Missionaries of the Immaculate Heart of Mary
(CICM) in 1966, began the radio industry in the region through its AM station
DZWT and its FM station DZWR (Catholic Media Network 2011). DZWT initially
broadcasted mostly music and news in English. In the 1970s, entertainment
programs such as verse-and-music shows and public service announcements
were included in its programming schedule. To broaden its mass appeal, the
station produced drama programs and utilized Ilocano. It was during this time
when music by Rod Danggol and Morr Tadeo was heard on air. Their songs were
inserted in a morning program that was dominated by songs in Ilocano. For a
long time, DZWT promoted Ilocano, Kankanaey, and Ibaloy pop songs by
providing them airtime.

In May 1995, the CICM turned over the operation of the stations to the Vicariate
of Baguio-Benguet. It was also in 1995 when DZWR adopted the folk, rock, and
country music format. DZWR “went country” when Lourdes Gomeyac, already a
popular singer and recording artist, joined the station as disc jockey. Other
radio stations in Baguio also now play some country music.

The Bombo Radyo DZWX (1035 AM) program Balik Harana Live sa Bombo
Radyo airs local and amateur singers who sing live songs in Philippine
languages. Ibaloy and Kankanaey songs are sung in this Sunday evening
program. The career of Agi, a band composed mostly of Ibaloy from Kabayan,
Benguet, began when it won second place in a singing contest sponsored by K-
Lite Radio (96.7 FM), a youth-oriented top hits music station. The band became
popular with the song “Malasmas” and went on to release the music video
album, Liali. It performs regularly in Baguio bars.

In the 1970s, RPN-DZBS (1368 AM) on Session Road played a key role in
promoting the records of Rod Danggol, Morr Tadeo, and their contemporaries.
In the 1990s, disc jockey Lakay Tinong Lardizabal played local songs in the
station. Ibaloy and other pop songs in the Cordillera languages are on the
Internet. The local music industry produces popular videoke formats of songs in
the Cordillera, including Ibaloy.

Mainstream film Sabel, 1994, starring Judy Ann Santos and Sunshine Dizon,
depicts the resistance of an Ibaloy village against a mining corporation.
Although Ibaloy culture is presented, the film’s representation of the Ibaloy as
passive individuals has been criticized (Tindaan 2010, 88-89).

Other films, while not about the Ibaloy, have represented the Ibaloy homeland
Baguio in a particularly romanticized manner. Mike de Leon’s Kung Mangarap
Ka’t Magising (If You Dream and Awaken), 1977, begins a list of films that
designate Baguio as the idyllic setting for the ideal romance. For its
protagonists, Baguio is a refuge from the Manila heat, both physical and
emotional. Ana (Hilda Koronel) is an unhappily married young mother who falls
in love with college student Joey (Christopher de Leon), grieving over his
girlfriend’s death. Both hope to find life’s meaning and contentment in the clean
and cool air of Baguio, reminiscent of the hill station’s function at the turn of the
20th century. Together they head deeper into the Mountain Province and find
inner peace in the Sagada Church of Saint Mary the Virgin, but eventually go
their separate ways. Baguio has a similar function as setting in the films Friends
in Love, 1983; Sa Hirap at Ginhawa (In Hard and Easy Times), 1984; Labs Kita,
Okey Ka Lang? (I Love You, Are You Okay?), 1998; Laro sa Baga (Playing in
Embers), 2000; Ngayong Nandito Ka (Now You’re Here), 2003; and Don’t Give
Up on Us, 2006.

Baguio was never short on movie houses. The outdoor Garden Theatre existed
between 1907 to 1909. Three movie houses were built in the 1920s and 1930s:
Alhamar-Chainus, Baguio Theatre, and Pines Theatre. Although all three
remained in operation during the World War II, these were either damaged or
destroyed by the American bombing in 1945. Postwar’s “Big 4” movie houses
were Session Theatre along Session Road, Plaza Theatre at the foot of Session
Road, Aurora Theater along Mabini Street, and the newly restored Pines
Theatre, also at the foot of Session Road. A number of other movie houses were
built in the succeeding decades.

Hollywood movies, particularly westerns, were popular among the local

population, who emulated the cowboy characters. This eventually led to the
emergence of the kinnoboyan, or the state of being a Benguet cowboy, among
the Baguio Igorot, who came to own horses handed down to them by Americans
in exchange for services. They also began to patronize local versions of western
films, produce local renditions of popular country songs, substitute tapey and
gin for the cowboy drink, and set up “standing rooms” or bars outside the city
center as local cowboy saloons. Baguio City’s long cinema history has made it
the center of the film industry in Northern Luzon. Films produced in Baguio are
featured in the annual Cinema Rehiyon of the National Commission for Culture
and the Arts (NCCA).
 ___________________________________________

SOURCES AND REFERENCES

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Ameda, Chimcas, Gonzalo A. Tigo, Vicente B. Mesa, Lee Ballard, Patricia O. Afable. 2011. Ibaloy: Dictionary, Phonology, Grammar, Morphophonemics, Notes

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Brett, June. 1987. “Survey of Cordillera Indigenous Political Institutions.” Working Paper 5. Baguio City: Cordillera Studies Center, University of the Philippines

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———. 1990. “Baguio: A Multi-ethnic City and the Development of the Ibaloy as an Ethnic Minority,” CSC Working Paper 15. Baguio City: Cordillera Studies

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Canilao, Michael Armand P. 2011. Of Gold, Spanish Conquistadors, and Ibaloi Generational Memory. Baguio City: Cordillera Studies Center, University of the

Philippines Baguio.

Casal, Gabriel, Regalado Trota Jose Jr., Eric S. Casiño, George R. Ellis, and Wilhelm G. Solheim II. 1981. The People and Art of the Philippines. Los Angeles:

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Catholic Media Network. 2011. “Executive Summary of the Historical Account of the Mountain Province Broadcasting Corporation.” The Catholic Media

Network. Accessed 24 August. http://www.catholicmedianetwork.org/radio/BAGUIOMVH.htm.

Cruz, Pamela Marie M. 2011. “Ang Karanaan ng Nakaraan sa Gunitang Viswal: Pagsusuri sa mga Pelikulang Romantiko sa Baguio.” Plaridel 8 (2).

De Guia, Stella Maria. 2011. “The Baguio Art Scene.” Baguio Midland Courier, 3 April. 

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Letters.

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Locsin, Ma. Rina A. 2013. “A Brief History of the Baguio Sine.” Plaridel 10 (1).

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California.

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