Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC)
In an Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant,

the temperature difference of warm surface water and
deep cold water of the ocean is utilized to operate a heat
engine. Energy as heat is extracted from the warm
surface water, part of this is converted to generate
electricity and the remaining energy is rejected as heat
to the cold deep sea water in a cyclic process. It can be
integrated with a desalination plant, commonly known
as the hybrid cycle, to produce fresh water. OTEC
plants are more suitable for low latitudes (tropical
oceans) because the water temperature remains almost
uniform throughout the year with few variations due to
seasonal effects. About 63% of the surface of the
tropics between latitudes 30ºN and 30ºS is occupied by
ocean water.
Solar energy that is absorbed by the tropical oceans

maintains a relatively stable surface temperature of 26-
28ºC to a depth of approximately 100 m. As the depth
increases, the temperature drops, and at depths close to
1000 m, the temperature is as low as 4ºC. Below this
depth, the temperature drops only a few degrees. The
1

temperature difference of warm and cold waters is
maintained throughout the year with very few variations
in the tropics. An OTEC plant, which is similar to a
heat engine governed by the first law of
thermodynamics, is driven between the heat source and
sink to produce work output, shown by a schematic
diagram in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an OTEC plant operating

as a heat engine.
Ocean thermal energy conversion power systems are

basically divided into three categories: open cycle,
closed cycle, and hybrid cycle systems. An open cycle
OTEC system, shown in Fig. 2, utilizes the warm
surface water as the working fluid. The surface water is
pumped into a chamber where a vacuum pump reduces
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the pressure to allow the water to boil at low
temperature to produce steam. The steam drives a
turbine coupled to a generator and then is condensed
(using deep cold seawater pumped to the surface) to
produce desalinated water.
Fig. 2. An open cycle OTEC plant
A closed cycle OTEC system incorporates a working

fluid, such as ammonia or ammonia/water mixture,
operating between two heat exchangers in a closed
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cycle. A closed cycle utilizes the warm surface water to
vaporize the working fluid in a heat exchanger
(evaporator). The vaporized fluid drives a turbine
coupled to a generator. The vapor is then condensed in
a heat exchanger (condenser) using cold deep seawater
pumped to the surface. The condensed working fluid is
pumped back to the evaporator, as shown in Fig. 3, and
the cycle is repeated.
Fig. 3. A closed cycle OTEC plant

4

Major differences between the open and closed cycle
systems are the sizes of ducts and turbines, and the
surface area required by heat exchangers for effective
heat transfer. For a given OTEC system with a certain
power output, a closed cycle system with ammonia as
the working fluid requires a much smaller duct and
turbine diameter compared to an open cycle system
which has water as the working fluid. The difference is
attributed to the pressure difference across the turbine
and the specific volume of the working fluids. The heat
exchangers for closed cycle systems require large
surface areas to minimize temperature losses and to
maintain the heat transfer between the ocean water and
the working fluid to obtain the required power output.
The hybrid system integrates the power cycle with

desalination to produce electricity and desalinated
water. Nearly 2.28 million liters of desalinated water
can be obtained everyday for every MW of power
generated by a hybrid OTEC system. Electricity is
generated in the closed cycle system circulating a
working fluid and the warm and cold seawater
discharges are passed through the vacuum chamber and
condenser to produce fresh water. The power that the
pumps need to do work is supplied from the gross
power output of the OTEC power generating system.
5

Fig. 4. A hybrid cycle OTEC plant
The working fluids for either closed or hybrid cycles

should be such that it is able to operate between the low
temperatures and still give optimum efficiency. Mostly
Freon and ammonia are considered, whereas ammonia
6

and water mixture are also accepted for use. The use of
mixtures instead of one component fluid improves the
thermodynamic performance of power cycles. Studies
suggest that working fluids can be selected based on the
specific environment and working conditions without
affecting the efficiency much. The cycles are basic
Rankine cycles that operate between a heat source and
sink to generate electricity with efficiencies close to
3%. To increase the thermal efficiency of the OTEC
system, other kinds of energies such as solar energy,
geothermal energy, industrial waste energy, and solar
ponds can be introduced to increase the temperature
difference.
Theoretical Analysis of the Closed Cycle OTEC

System
The analysis of the closed cycle OTEC system is
presented in this section.
Gross
The net power, W N , of an OTEC plant is the net power

of the thermal cycle minus the pumping power required
by the working fluid pump, and the warm and cold
water pumps, given as:
7

W = W − (W +W +W ) (1)
N G WSP CSP WFP
where WG is the power available at the generator, WWSP

is the power required for pumping warm surface water,
WCSP is the power required for pumping deep cold
seawater, and WWFP is the working fluid pumping
power.
a) Generator power, WG
Since the working fluid pump, the evaporator, the

condenser, and the turbine are steady flow devices, the
processes of the power cycle are analyzed as steady
flow processes using the steady flow energy equation
(SFEE):
v12 v22
h1 + + gz1 + q1−2 = h2 + + gz2 + w1−2 (2)
2 2
The kinetic and potential energies are negligible. The

SFEE simplifies to:
w1−2,isen = h1 − h2,isen (3)
8

where h1 and h2,isen are enthalpies of the working fluid at
inlet and exit of an isentropic/ideal turbine. The
generator power is thus given as:
WG = mWFηTηG (h1 − h2,isen ) (4)
where m WF is the mass flowrate of working fluid, ηT is

the turbine efficiency, and ηG is the generator
efficiency.
b) Condenser
i) Heat rejection from working fluid in the condenser
The kinetic and potential energies are negligible. There

is no work done. The SFEE simplifies to:
−q2−3 = h3 − h2 (5)
where h3 is the enthalpy of the working fluid at the exit

of the condenser. Thus, the heat rejection from the
working fluid in the condenser is:
QC = mWF (h2 − h3) (6)
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ii) The heat gained by cold water in the condenser
QC = m CS C p (Tcso − Tcsi ) (7)
where m CS is the mass flowrate of the deep cold sea

water, C p is the specific heat, Tcso is the temperature of
cold seawater at exit of condenser, and Tcsi is the cold
sea water temperature at inlet of condenser.
iii) The heat transfer in the condenser based on the heat

transfer coefficient and the log mean temperature
difference is:
QC =UC AC (ΔTm )C (8)
where U C is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the

condenser, AC is the heat transfer area of the condenser,
and (ΔTm )C is the log mean temperature difference
(LMTD) of the condenser.
The log mean temperature difference is calculated as:
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(T2 − Tcsi ) − (T3 − Tcso )
(ΔTm )C = (9)
⎧ T −T ⎫
ln ⎪⎨ 2 csi ⎪⎬
⎪T3 − Tcso ⎪
⎩ ⎭
where T2 and T3 are temperatures of the working fluid at

the inlet and outlet of the condenser.
c) Working fluid pump power, WWFP
The kinetic and potential energies are negligible. Work

is done on the pump, therefore negative work output.
SFEE simplifies to:
− w3−4,ise = h3 − h4,isen (10)
where h4,isen is the enthalpy of the working fluid at the

exit of an isentropic/ideal pump. The working fluid
pump power is thus calculated as:
m (h −h )
WWFP = WF 4,isen 3 (11)
ηWFP
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where ηWFP is the working fluid pump efficiency. For
real life analysis, the pump efficiency should include
the efficiency of the electric motor that runs the pump.
The shaft work for a steady flow device (pump) is:
4
W = −∫ v.dp (12)
3
The working fluid pumping power is also given as:
m WF v f ( P4 − P3 )
WWFP =
ηWFP (13)
where v f is the specific volume of the working fluid,

and P3 and P4 are operating pressures.
d) Evaporator
i) Heat absorption by the working fluid in the
evaporator
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The kinetic and potential energies are negligible. There
is no work done. The SFEE simplifies to:
q4−1 = h1 − h4 (14)
The heat added to the working fluid in the evaporator is

thus given as:
Q E = mWF (h1 − h4 ) (15)
ii) The heat loss by warm water in the evaporator
Q E = mWS C p (Twsi −Twso ) (16)
where mWS is the mass flowrate of the warm surface sea

water, C p is the specific heat, Twsi is the temperature of
warm seawater at inlet of evaporator, and TWSO is the
warm sea water temperature at outlet of evaporator.
iii) The heat transfer in the evaporator based on the heat

transfer coefficient and the log mean temperature
difference is:
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Q E = U E AE (ΔTm )E (17)
where U E is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the

evaporator, AE is the heat transfer area of the
evaporator, and (ΔTm )E is the log mean temperature
difference (LMTD) of the evaporator. The log mean
temperature difference is calculated as:
(Twsi − T1) − (Twso − T4 )

(ΔTm )E = (18)
⎪ wsi − T1 ⎪
⎧T ⎫
ln ⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ Twso − T4 ⎪⎭
where T1 and T4 are temperatures of the working fluid at

the inlet and outlet of the evaporator.
e) Cold sea water pumping power, WCSP
The cold seawater pumping power is given as:

m g ΔhCSP
WCSP = CS
ηCSP (19)
14

where ηCSP is the pump efficiency, g is the gravitational
acceleration, and ΔhCSP is the total head loss in the cold
water pipe. The total head loss across the cold water
piping system is:
ΔhCSP = (ΔhCS )SP + (ΔhCS )M + (ΔhCS )C + (ΔhCS )d (20)
where (ΔhCS)SP, is the head loss due to friction in the

straight cold water pipe, (ΔhCS)M is the minor head
losses due to bends, (ΔhCS)C is head loss of cold water in
the condenser, and (ΔhCS)d is the head loss due to
density differences. The cold seawater pumping power
is thus given as:
m CS g ⎡⎢(ΔhCS )SP + (ΔhCS )M + (ΔhCS )C + (ΔhCS )d ⎤⎥

WCSP = ⎣ ⎦
ηCSP
(21)
e) Warm sea water pumping power, WWSP
The warm surface seawater pumping power is given as:
m g ΔhWSP
WWSP = WS
ηWSP (22)
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where ηWSP is the pump efficiency, g is the gravitational
acceleration, and ΔhWSP is the total head loss in the
warm water pipe. The total head loss across the warm
water piping system is:
ΔhWSP = (ΔhWS )SP + (ΔhWS )M + (ΔhWS )E (23)
where (ΔhWS)SP, is the frictional head loss in the straight

warm water pipe, (ΔhWS)M is the minor head losses in
the pipe due to bends, and (ΔhWS)E, is the head loss of
warm water in the evaporator. The warm seawater
pumping power is thus given as:
m WS g ⎡⎢(ΔhWS )SP + (ΔhWS )M + (ΔhWS ) E ⎤⎥

WWSP = ⎣ ⎦
ηWSP (24)
16

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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

In an Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant,

Solar energy that is absorbed by the tropical oceans

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an OTEC plant operating

Ocean thermal energy conversion power systems are

Fig. 2. An open cycle OTEC plant

A closed cycle OTEC system incorporates a working

Fig. 3. A closed cycle OTEC plant

The hybrid system integrates the power cycle with

The working fluids for either closed or hybrid cycles

Theoretical Analysis of the Closed Cycle OTEC

The net power, W N , of an OTEC plant is the net power

where WG is the power available at the generator, WWSP

a) Generator power, WG

Since the working fluid pump, the evaporator, the

The kinetic and potential energies are negligible. The

w1−2,isen = h1 − h2,isen (3)

where m WF is the mass flowrate of working fluid, ηT is

The kinetic and potential energies are negligible. There

where h3 is the enthalpy of the working fluid at the exit

QC = mWF (h2 − h3) (6)

QC = m CS C p (Tcso − Tcsi ) (7)

where m CS is the mass flowrate of the deep cold sea

iii) The heat transfer in the condenser based on the heat

QC =UC AC (ΔTm )C (8)

where U C is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the

where T2 and T3 are temperatures of the working fluid at

c) Working fluid pump power, WWFP

The kinetic and potential energies are negligible. Work

− w3−4,ise = h3 − h4,isen (10)

where h4,isen is the enthalpy of the working fluid at the

The working fluid pumping power is also given as:

where v f is the specific volume of the working fluid,

The heat added to the working fluid in the evaporator is

Q E = mWF (h1 − h4 ) (15)

ii) The heat loss by warm water in the evaporator

Q E = mWS C p (Twsi −Twso ) (16)

where mWS is the mass flowrate of the warm surface sea

iii) The heat transfer in the evaporator based on the heat

where U E is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the

(Twsi − T1) − (Twso − T4 )

where T1 and T4 are temperatures of the working fluid at

e) Cold sea water pumping power, WCSP

The cold seawater pumping power is given as:

ΔhCSP = (ΔhCS )SP + (ΔhCS )M + (ΔhCS )C + (ΔhCS )d (20)

where (ΔhCS)SP, is the head loss due to friction in the

m CS g ⎡⎢(ΔhCS )SP + (ΔhCS )M + (ΔhCS )C + (ΔhCS )d ⎤⎥

The warm surface seawater pumping power is given as:

ΔhWSP = (ΔhWS )SP + (ΔhWS )M + (ΔhWS )E (23)

where (ΔhWS)SP, is the frictional head loss in the straight

m WS g ⎡⎢(ΔhWS )SP + (ΔhWS )M + (ΔhWS ) E ⎤⎥

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The net power, W N , of an OTEC plant is the net power

where WG is the power available at the generator, WWSP

a) Generator power, WG

where m WF is the mass flowrate of working fluid, ηT is

QC = mWF (h2 − h3) (6)

QC = m CS C p (Tcso − Tcsi ) (7)

where m CS is the mass flowrate of the deep cold sea

QC =UC AC (ΔTm )C (8)

c) Working fluid pump power, WWFP

Q E = mWF (h1 − h4 ) (15)

Q E = mWS C p (Twsi −Twso ) (16)

where mWS is the mass flowrate of the warm surface sea

e) Cold sea water pumping power, WCSP

m CS g ⎡⎢(ΔhCS )SP + (ΔhCS )M + (ΔhCS )C + (ΔhCS )d ⎤⎥

m WS g ⎡⎢(ΔhWS )SP + (ΔhWS )M + (ΔhWS ) E ⎤⎥