Discrete Mathematics

(Relations)

Pramod Ganapathi
Department of Computer Science
State University of New York at Stony Brook

January 24, 2021

Are these functions?

Problem
Are these functions?
− rational p = rational q
−m<n
− d does not divide n
− n leaves a remainder of 5 when divided by d
− line `1 is parallel to line `2
− person a is a parent of person b
− triangle t1 is congruent to triangle t2
− edge e1 is adjacent to edge e2
− matrix A is orthogonal to matrix B
No! (Because an input is mapped to more than one output.)
What are these mappings called?
Relations!
Functions vs. relations

Relations

congruence modulo

congruent Functions parallel

n2 n−2 2n
log x x1/x sin x

orthogonal adjacent

<, >, ≤, ≥
Functions vs. relations

y
100 y
10 x = y2
80
60 5
40 y = x2 x
20 40 60 80 100
20
x -5
-10 -5 5 10
-10
√
y = x2 y=± x
Function? 3 7
Relation? 3 3
Functions vs. relations

y y
10 10

5 5

-10 -5 5 10
x -10 -5 5 10
x
-5 -5

-10 -10
y=x y≥x
Function? 3 7
Relation? 3 3
What is a binary relation?

Definition
If A and B are sets, then a binary relation from A to B
is a subset of A × B.
We say that x is related to y by R, written x R y, if, and only
if, (x, y) ∈ R. Denoted as x R y ⇔ (x, y) ∈ R .

Relationship
Set of all functions is a proper subset of the set of all relations.
Example: Marriage relation

Female

Male
F1
M1
F2
M2
F3
M3
F4
M4
F5
Example: Less than

Problem
A relation L : R → R as follows.
For all real numbers x and y, (x, y) ∈ L ⇔ x L y ⇔ x < y.
Draw the graph of L as a subset of the Cartesian plane R × R.
Solution
L = {(−10.678, 30.23), (17.13, 45.98), (100/9, 200), . . .}
Graph:
Example: Congruence modulo 2

Problem
Define a relation C : Z → Z as follows.
For all (m, n) ∈ Z × Z, m C n ⇔ m − n is even.
Prove that if n is any odd integer, then n C 1.
Solution
A = {(2, 4), (56, 10), (−88, −64), . . .}
B = {(7, 7), (57, 11), (−87, −63), . . .}
C =A∪B
Proof. (n, 1) ∈ C ⇔ n C 1 ⇔ n − 1 is even
Suppose n is odd i.e., n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
This implies that n − 1 = 2k is even.
Example: Congruence modulo 2
Inverse of a relation

Female Female

Male Male
F1 F1
M1 M1
F2 F2
M2 M2
F3 F3
M3 M3
F4 F4
M4 M4
F5 F5
Inverse of a relation

Definition
Let R be a relation from A to B.
Then inverse relation R−1 from B to A is:
R−1 = {(y, x) ∈ B × A | (x, y) ∈ R} .
For all x ∈ A and y ∈ B,
(x, y) ∈ R ⇔ (y, x) ∈ R−1 .
Example: Inverse of a finite relation
Problem
Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 6, 8}.
Let R : A to B. For all (a, b) ∈ A × B, a R b ⇔ a | b
Determine R and R−1 . Draw arrow diagrams for both.
Describe R−1 in words.
Solution
R = {(2, 2), (2, 6), (2, 8), (3, 6), (4, 8)}
R−1 = {(2, 2), (6, 2), (8, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4)}
For all (b, a) ∈ B × A,
(b, a) ∈ R−1 ⇔ b is a multiple of a
Example: Inverse of an infinite relation
Problem
Define a relation R from R to R as follows:
For all (u, v) ∈ R × R, u R v ⇔ v = 2|u|.
Draw the graphs of R and R−1 in the Cartesian plane.
Is R−1 a function?
Solution
R−1 is not a function. Why?
Relation on a set

Definition
A relation on a set A is a relation from A to A.
The resulting arrow diagram is a directed graph possibly con-
taining loops
Example: Relation on a set

Problem
Let A = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Define relation R on A as follows.
For all x, y ∈ A, x R y ⇔ 2|(x − y). Draw the graph of R.
Solution
Reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity
Properties
Set A = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9}
Relation R on set A is: ∀x, y ∈ A, x R y ⇔ 3 | (x − y)

Reflexivity. ∀x ∈ A, (x, x) ∈ R.
Symmetry. ∀x, y ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R, then (y, x) ∈ R.
Transitivity.
∀x, y, z ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R.
Example

Problem
A = {0, 1, 2, 3}.
R = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 3), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3)}.
Is R reflexive, symmetric, and transitive?
Solution

Reflexive. ∀x ∈ A, (x, x) ∈ R.
Symmetric. ∀x, y ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R, then (y, x) ∈ R.
Not transitive. e.g.: (1, 0), (0, 3) ∈ R but (1, 3) 6∈ R.
∃x, y, z ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) 6∈ R.
Example

Problem
A = {0, 1, 2, 3}. R = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 3), (2, 3)}.
Is R reflexive, symmetric, and transitive?
Solution

Not reflexive. e.g.: (1, 1) 6∈ R. ∃x ∈ A, (x, x) 6∈ R.

Not symmetric. e.g.: (0, 3) ∈ R but (3, 0) 6∈ R.
∃x, y ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R, then (y, x) 6∈ R.
Transitive.
∀x, y, z ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R.
Example

Problem
A = {0, 1, 2, 3}. R = {(0, 1), (2, 3)}.
Is R reflexive, symmetric, and transitive?
Solution

Not reflexive. e.g.: (0, 0) 6∈ R. ∃x ∈ A, (x, x) 6∈ R.

Not symmetric. e.g.: (0, 1) ∈ R but (1, 0) 6∈ R.
∃x, y ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R, then (y, x) 6∈ R.
Transitive. Why?
∀x, y, z ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R.
Equivalence relation and equivalence class

Definition
Relation R on set A is an equivalence relation iff
R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Equivalence class of element a, denoted by [a], for an equiva-
lence relation is defined as:
[a] = {x ∈ A | (x, a) ∈ R}.
Example: Less than

Problem
Suppose R is a relation on R such that x R y ⇔ x < y.
Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution
Not reflexive. e.g.: 0 6< 0. ∃x ∈ R, x 6< x.
Not symmetric. e.g.: 0 < 1 but 1 6< 0.
∃x, y ∈ R, if x < y, then y 6< x.
Transitive. ∀x, y, z ∈ R, if x < y and y < z, then x < z.
So, R is not an equivalence relation.
Example: Equality (or Identity relation)

Problem
Suppose R is a relation on R such that x R y ⇔ x = y.
Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution
Reflexive. ∀x ∈ R, x = x.
Symmetric. ∀x, y ∈ R, if x = y, then y = x.
Transitive. ∀x, y, z ∈ R, if x = y and y = z, then x = z.
So, R is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence classes: [a] = {a}.
Example: Partition
Problem
Suppose R is a partition relation on A such that
∀x, y ∈ A, x R y ⇔ x, y ∈ Ai for some subset Ai .
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Partition of A is {{0, 3, 4}, {1}, {2}}.
Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution

R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

So, R is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence classes: [0] = {0, 3, 4}, [1] = {1}, and [2] = {2}.
Example: Partition

Problem
Suppose R is a partition relation on A such that
∀x, y ∈ A, x R y ⇔ x, y ∈ Ai for some subset Ai .
Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution
Reflexive. ∀m ∈ A, (m, m) ∈ R.
Symmetric. ∀m, n ∈ A, if (m, n) ∈ R, then (n, m) ∈ R.
Transitive.
∀m, n, p ∈ A, if (m, n) ∈ R and (n, p) ∈ R, then (m, p) ∈ R.
So, R is an equivalence relation.
Example: Least element
Problem
Let X denote the power set of {1, 2, 3}.
Suppose R is a relation on X such that ∀A, B ∈ X
A R B ⇔ Least element of A is same as that of B.
Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution

R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

So, R is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence classes: [{1}], [{2}], and [{3}].
Example: Congruence modulo 3

Problem
Suppose R is a relation on Z such that m R n ⇔ 3 | (m − n).
Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution
Reflexive. ∀m ∈ A, 3 | (m − m).
Symmetric. ∀m, n ∈ A, if 3 | (m − n), then 3 | (n − m).
Transitive.
∀m, n, p ∈ A, if 3 | (m − n) and 3 | (n − p), then 3 | (m − p).
So, R is an equivalence relation.
Example: Congruence modulo 3

Solution
Equivalence classes.
Three distinct equivalence classes are [0], [1], and [2].
[0] = {a ∈ Z | a ≡ 0 (mod 3)} = {0, ±3, ±6, ±9, . . .}
[1] = {a ∈ Z | a ≡ 1 (mod 3)} = {1, 1 ± 3, 1 ± 6, 1 ± 9, . . .}
[2] = {a ∈ Z | a ≡ 2 (mod 3)} = {2, 2 ± 3, 2 ± 6, 2 ± 9, . . .}

Intuition.
[0] = Set of integers when divided by 3 leave a remainder of 0.
[1] = Set of integers when divided by 3 leave a remainder of 1.
[2] = Set of integers when divided by 3 leave a remainder of 2.
Congruence modulo n

Definition
Let a and b be integers and n be a positive integer.
The following statements are equivalent:
a and b leave the same remainder when divided by n.
a mod n = b mod n.
n | (a − b).
a is congruent to b modulo n.
a ≡ b (mod n)
a = b + kn for some integer k.

Examples
12 ≡ 7 (mod 5)
6 ≡ −6 (mod 4)
3 ≡ 3 (mod 7)
Example: Congruence modulo n

Problem
Suppose R is a relation on Z such that
a R b ⇔ a ≡ b (mod n).
Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution
Reflexive. ∀a ∈ Z, a ≡ a (mod n).
Symmetric.
∀a, b ∈ Z, if a ≡ b (mod n), then b ≡ a (mod n).
Transitive.
∀a, b, c ∈ Z, if a ≡ b (mod n) and b ≡ c (mod n), then
a ≡ c (mod n).
So, R is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence classes: [0], [1], . . . , [n − 1].
Example: Congruence modulo n

Solution
R is Reflexive. Show that ∀a ∈ Z, n | (a − a). We know that
a − a = 0 and n | 0. Hence, n | (a − a).
R is Symmetric. Show that ∀a, b ∈ Z, if a ≡ b (mod n),
then b ≡ a (mod n). We see that a ≡ b (mod n) means
n | (a − b).
Let (a − b) = nk, for some integer k.
=⇒ −(a − b) = −nk (multiply both sides by -1)
=⇒ (b − a) = n(−k) (simplify)
=⇒ n | (b − a) (−k is an integer; use defn. of divisibility)
In other words, b ≡ a (mod n).
Example: Congruence modulo n

Solution
R is transitive. Show that ∀a, b, c ∈ Z, if a ≡ b (mod n) and
b ≡ c (mod n), then a ≡ c (mod n).
We see that a ≡ b (mod n) and b ≡ c (mod n) imply that
n | (a − b) and n | (b − c), respectively.
Let (a − b) = nk and (b − c) = n`, for some integers k and `.
Adding the two equations, we get
(a − c) = (k + `)n, where k + ` is an integer because addition
is closed on integers.
By definition of divisibility, n | (a − c) or a ≡ c (mod n).
Modular arithmetic

Modular arithmetic
Let a, b, c, d, n be integers with n > 1.
Suppose a ≡ c (mod n) and b ≡ d (mod n). Then
1. (a + b) ≡ (c + d) (mod n)
2. (a − b) ≡ (c − d) (mod n)
3. (ab) ≡ (cd) (mod n)
4. (am ) ≡ (cm ) (mod n) for all positive integers m
Units digit

Problem
What is the units digit of 14838650 ?
Solution
Units digit of 14838650 is the units digit of 38650 .
Units digit of 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , and 34 are
1, 3, 9, 7, and 1, respectively.
Periodicity is 4. Therefore,
Units digit of 34k+0 is 1.
Units digit of 34k+1 is 3.
Units digit of 34k+2 is 9.
Units digit of 34k+3 is 7.
Units digit of 38650 = 34×2162+2 is 9.
Hence, the answer is 9.
Equation solving

Problem
Use modular arithmetic to solve the equations.
16x + 12y = 32 and 40x − 9y = 7.
Solution
Apply mod 3 on both sides of the first equation.
(16x + 12y) mod 3 ≡ 32 mod 3
=⇒ x ≡ 2 mod 3
Similarly, apply mod 3 on both sides of the second equation.
(40x − 9y) mod 3 ≡ 7 mod 3
=⇒ x ≡ 1 mod 3
These two congruences are contradictory.
Hence, the system of equations does not have a solution.
Universal product code (UPC)

Check digits are used to reduce errors universal product codes,

tracking operations for shipping operations, book identification
numbers (ISBNs), vehicle numbers, ID for the healthcare
industry, etc.
UPC is a 12-digit number, where the last digit is the check digit.
Suppose the first 11 digits of the UPC are
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11 . Then the check digit can be
computed using the following formula
a12 = (210 − k) mod 10 , where
k = 3(a1 + a3 + · · · + a11 ) + (a2 + a4 + · · · + a10 )
Universal product code (UPC)

Problem
The first eleven digits of the UPC for a package of ink cartridges
are 88442334010. What is the check digit?
Solution
k = 3(8 + 4 + 2 + 3 + 0 + 0) + (8 + 4 + 3 + 4 + 1) = 71
check digit = (210 − 71) mod 10 = 9