XI – Chemistry

Chapter 2: Structure of Atom

Prepared by
Namish Manchanda
UG Scholar (B. Pharm),
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
DPSRU, Govt. of NCT of Delhi
 HISTORY of Matter
Early Indian Philosophers believed that Matter is made up
of five basic elements called “PANCH BHOOTA”

1. FIRE 2. EARTH 3. SKY

4. AIR 5. WATER
 Introduction

Democritus 460 B.C was the first to

theorize that matter was made of small
pieces.

Leucippus was the first to use the term

atom (atomon), which meant "indivisible"
in Greek.
Matter consists of tiny particles
 Structure of Atom
• The existence of atoms has been proposed since the time
of early Indian and Greek philosophers (400 B.C.) who
were of the view that atoms are the fundamental building
blocks of matter. According to them, atoms are indivisible.
• The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek word
‘a-tomio’ which means ‘uncut-able’ or ‘non-divisible’.
Dalton’ atomic theory
 Dalton’ atomic theory

• The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a firm

scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school teacher in
1808.
• Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the law of
conservation of mass, law of constant composition and law of
multiple proportion very successfully.
• Failed to explain the results of many experiments,
• for example, it was known that substances like glass or ebonite when
rubbed with silk or fur get electrically charged.
 Atoms are made of sub-atomic particles,
i.e., electrons, protons and neutrons
Experiment No.1
Discovery of Electron (1897) J J Thomson
• When sufficiently high voltage is applied through an inert gas
(He, Ar) across the electrodes, current starts flowing through a
stream of particles moving in the Cathode ray discharge tube
from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode
(anode).
• These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
Cathode ray discharge tube experiment :
Discovery of an Electron
 Properties of Cathode Rays
• Cathode rays travel in a straight line.
• Cathode rays produces mechanical effect, because they rotate a light
paddle wheel placed in their path.
• Cathode rays produces Heating effect when they hit a heavy metal.
• Cathode rays produce fluorescent effect on fluorescent material.
• Cathode rays deflect towards a positive terminal in an electric field.
• Cathode rays deflect towards the direction determined by Fleming’ left
hand rule.
• Cathode rays are Negatively charged.
• Cathode rays can ionize gasses.
• Cathode rays can produce X rays.
• Cathode rays do not depend upon the nature of the gas and material.
 Charge to mass (e/m) ratio determination of an electron
This experiment measures e/m, the charge to mass ratio of the electron.

This ratio was first measured by J. J. Thomson in 1897.

He won a Nobel prize for his study of electrons.

Procedure :
i. In the present experiment a beam of electrons is accelerated through a known
potential, so the velocity of the electrons is known.
ii. A pair of Helmholtz coils produces a uniform and measurable magnetic field at
right angles to the electron beam. This magnetic field deflects the electron beam
in a circular path. By measuring the accelerating potential, the current to the
Helmholtz coils, and the radius of the circular path of the electron beam, the ratio
e/m is calculated.
In 1897, British physicist J.J. Thomson measured the ratio of electrical
charge (e) to the mass of electron (me ) by using cathode ray tube and applying
electrical and magnetic field perpendicular to each other as well as to the path
of electrons.
Agreements :
Thomson argued that the amount of deviation of the particles from their path
in the presence of electrical or magnetic field depends upon:
i. the magnitude of the negative charge on the particle, greater the
magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the interaction with the
electric or magnetic field and thus greater is the deflection.
ii. the mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater the deflection.
iii. the strength of the electrical or magnetic field — the deflection of
electrons from its original path increases with the increase in the voltage
across the electrodes, or the strength of the magnetic field.
Conclusion :
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of
deflections observed by the electrons on the electric field strength
or field strength, Thomson was able to determine the value of
e/me as:
e/me = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1
Where me is the mass of the electron in kg and e is the magnitude
of the charge on the electron in coulomb (C).
Since electrons are negatively charged, the charge on electron is –
e.
 Charge of an electron (1909)
(Millikan oil drop experiment)
• In 1909, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher conducted the oil drop
experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
• They suspended tiny charged droplets of oil between two metal electrodes by
balancing downward gravitational force with upward drag and electric
forces. The density of the oil was known, so Millikan and Fletcher could
determine the droplets’ masses from their observed.
• Using the known electric field and the values of gravity and mass, Millikan
and Fletcher determined the charge on oil droplets in mechanical equilibrium.
• They calculated this value to be 1.5924 × 10−19Coulombs (C), which is within
1% of the currently accepted value of -1.602176487 × 10−19 C.
At the time of Millikan and Fletcher’s oil drop experiments, the existence of subatomic
particles was not universally accepted.
George FitzGerald and Walter Kaufmann found similar results.
In 1923, Millikan won the Nobel Prize in physics in part because of this experiment.
 Experiment No.2 :
Discovery of Proton (1919) Eugene Goldstein
• Eugene Goldstein noted stream of particles in Cathode
rays in 1886. These particles move in opposite direction
to Cathode rays are called Canal rays because they
passed through holes drilled through a negative plate
(Cathode)
• When sufficiently high voltage is applied through an
inert gas (He or Ar) at low pressure across the electrodes,
he observed a new type of rays carrying a positive
charge streaming behind the cathode moving from the
positive electrode (Anode) to the negative electrode
(cathode). These were called Anode rays .
Anode ray discharge tube experiment :
Discovery of an Proton
 Properties of Anode Rays
• Anode rays travel in a straight line.
• Anode rays produces mechanical effect, because they rotate a light paddle
wheel placed in their path.
• Anode rays produces Heating effect when they hit a heavy metal.
• Anode rays produce fluorescent effect on fluorescent material.
• Anode rays are Positively charged.
• Anode rays deflect towards a Negative terminal in an electric field.
• Anode rays deflect towards the direction determined by Fleming’ left hand
rule in magnetic field.
• Anode rays can ionize gasses.
• Anode rays do not depend upon the nature of the gas and material, but
mass of positively charged particles depends upon the nature of gas present in
the cathode ray tube.
 Experiment 3: Discovery of Neutron (1932)
The British Physicist Sir James Chadwick smashed alpha particles into
Beryllium, a rare metallic element, allowed the radiation that was released to
hit another target paraffin wax,
This led to the production of an uncharged, penetrating radiation. the unusually
penetrating radiation consisted of uncharged particles having (approximately)
the same mass as a proton. These particles were later termed ‘neutrons’.
Characteristics of sub atomic particles