CHAPTER TWO

TIRE AND RIM FUNDAMENTALS

2.1 Tires and Sidewall Information

Pneumatic tires are the only means to transfer forces between the road and the vehicle. Tires are
required to produce the forces necessary to control the vehicle, and hence, they are an important
component of a vehicle. Figure 1.1 illustrates a cross section view of a tire on a rim to show the
dimension parameters that are used to standard tires.

Figure 1.1: Cross section of a tire on a rim to show tire height and width.

The section height, tire height, or simply height, hT, is a number that must be added to the rim radius
to make the wheel radius. Tires are required to have certain information printed on the tire sidewall.
Figure 1.2 illustrates a side view of a sample tire to show the important information printed on a tire
sidewall.

Figure 1.2: Side view of a tire and the most important information printed on a tire sidewall.
The codes in Figure 1.2 are:

1: Size number.
2: Maximum allowed inflation pressure.
3: Type of tire construction.
4: M&S denotes a tire for mud and snow.
5: E-Mark is the Europe type approval mark and number.
6: US Department of Transport (DOT) identification numbers.
7: Country of manufacture.
8: Manufacturers, brand name, or commercial name.

The most important information on the sidewall of a tire is the size number, indicated by (1). To see
the format of the size number, an example is shown in Figure 1.3 and their definitions are explained
as follows.

(P) Tire type: The first letter indicates the proper type of car that the tire is made for.

✓ (P) stands for passenger car.

✓ The first letter can also be (ST) for special trailer, (T) for temporary, and (LT) for light truck.

Figure 1.3: A sample of a tire size number and its meaning.

(215) Tire width: This three-number code is the width of the unloaded tire from sidewall to sidewall
measured in [mm].

(60) Aspect ratio: This two-number code is the ratio of the tire section height to tire width, expressed
as a percentage. Aspect ratio is shown by sT.

ℎ𝑇
𝑠𝑇 = × 100
𝑤𝑇
(R) Tire construction type: The letter (R) indicates that the tire has a radial construction. It may also
be (B) for bias belt or bias ply, and (D) for diagonal.

(15) Rim diameter: This is a number in [ in] to indicate diameter of the rim that the tire is designed
to fit on.

(96) Load rate or load index: Many tires come with a service description at the end of the tire size.
The service description is made of a two-digit number (load index) and a letter (speed rating). The
load index is a representation of the maximum load each tire is designed to support. Table 1.1 shows
some of the most common load indices and their load carrying capacities. The load index is generally
valid for speeds under 210 km/ h (≈ 130 mi/ h).

(H) Speed rate: Speed rate indicates the maximum speed that the tire can sustain for a ten-minute
endurance without breaking down. Table 1.2 shows the most common speed rate indices and their
meanings.
Table 1.1: Maximum load-carrying capacity tire index.

Example 1: For a car that weighs 2 tons (2000 kg), we need a tire with a load index higher than 84.
This is because we have about 500 kg per tire and it is in a load index of 84.

Example 2: A tire has the size number P 215/60R15 96H. Calculate the height of the tire?

The aspect ratio 60 means the height of the tire is equal to 60% of the tire width. To calculate the tire
height in [mm], we should multiply the first number (215) by the second number (60) and divide by
100.
60
ℎ𝑇 = 215 × = 129𝑚𝑚
100

This is the tire height from rim to tread.

 Table 1.2: Maximum speed tire index.

Example 3: Tire and rim widths

The dimensions of a tire are dependent on the rim on which it is mounted. For tires with an aspect
ratio of 50 and above, the rim width is approximately 70% of the tire’s width, rounded to the nearest
0.5 in. As an example, a P 255/50R16 tire has a design width of 255mm = 10.04 in however, 70% of
10.04 in is 7.028 in, which rounded to the nearest 0.5 in, is 7 in. Therefore, a P 255/50R16 tire should
be mounted on a 7 × 16 rim.

For tires with aspect ratio 45 and below, the rim width is 85% of the tire’s section width, rounded to
the nearest 0.5 in. For example, a P 255/45R17 tire with a section width of 255mm = 10.04 in, needs
an 8.5 in rim because 85% of 10.04 in is 8.534 in ≈ 8.5 in. Therefore, a P 255/45R17 tire should be
mounted on an 8.5 × 17 rim.

Example 4: Calculating tire diameter and radius. We are able to calculate the overall diameter of a
tire using the tire size numbers. By multiplying the tire width and the aspect ratio, we get the tire
height. As an example, we use tire number P 235/75R15.
ℎ𝑇 = 235 × 75%
ℎ𝑇 = 176.25𝑚𝑚 ≈ 6.94𝑖𝑛
Then, we add twice the tire height hT to the rim diameter to determine the tire’s unloaded diameter:

𝐷 = 2 × 6.94 + 15
𝐷 = 28.88𝑖𝑛 ≈ 733.8𝑚𝑚
𝑅 = 𝐷⁄2 = 366.9𝑚𝑚

Example 5: Tire weight

The average weight of a tire for passenger cars is 10 − 12 kg. The weight of a tire for light trucks is
14−16 kg, and the average weight of commercial truck tires is 135 − 180 kg.
Example 6: BMW tire size code

BMW, a European car, uses the metric system for sizing its tires. As an example, TD230/55ZR390 is
a metric tire size code. TD indicates the BMW TD model, 230 is the section width in [mm], 55 is the
aspect ratio in percent, Z is the speed rating, R means radial, and 390 is the rim diameter in [mm].

Example 7: Light truck tires

The tire sizes for a light truck may be shown in two formats:
LT 245/70R16
or
32 × 11.50R16LT

In the first format, LT= light truck, 245= tire width in mm, 70= aspect ratio in percent, R= radial
structure, and 16= rim diameter in inches.

In the second format, 32= tire diameter in inches, 11.50= tire width in inches, R= radial structure,
16= rim diameter in inches, and LT= light truck.

Example 8: U.S. DOT tire identification number

The US tire identification number is in the format "DOT DNZE ABCD 1309." It begins with the
letters DOT to indicate that the tire meets US federal standards. DOT stands for Department of
Transportation. The next two characters, DN, after DOT is the plant code, which refers to the
manufacturer and the factory location at which the tire was made. The next two characters, ZE, are a
letter-number combination that refers to the specific mold used for forming the tire. It is an internal
factory code and is not usually a useful code for customers. The last four numbers, 1309, represents
the week and year the tire was built. The other numbers, ABCD, are marketing codes used by the
manufacturer or at the manufacturer’s instruction.

Example 18: Under- and over-inflated tire

Overheat caused by improper inflation of tires is a common tire failure. An under-inflated tire will
support less of the vehicle weight with the air pressure in the tire; therefore, more of the vehicle
weight will be supported by the tire. This tire load increase causes the tire to have a larger tire print
that creates more friction and more heat.
In an over-inflated tire, too much of the vehicle weight is supported by the tire air pressure. The
vehicle will be bouncy and hard to steer because the tire print is small and only the center portion of
the tire print is contacting the road surface.
In a properly-inflated tire, approximately 95% of the vehicle weight is supported by the air pressure
in the tire and 5% is supported by the tire wall.
2.2 Tire Components
A tire is an advanced engineering product made of rubber and a series of synthetic materials cooked
together. Fiber, textile, and steel cords are some of the components that go into the tire’s inner liner,
body plies, bead bundle, belts, sidewalls, and tread.

Figure 1.4: Illustration of a sample radial tire interior components and arrangement

Bead or bead bundle is a loop of high strength steel cable coated with rubber. It gives the tire the
strength it needs to stay seated on the wheel rim and to transfer the tire forces to the rim.
Inner layers are made up of different fabrics, called plies. The most common ply fabric is
polyester cord. The top layers are also called cap plies. Cap plies are polyesteric fabric that help
hold everything in place.
Cap plies are not found on all tires; they are mostly used on tires with higher speed ratings to help
all the components stay in place at high speeds. An inner liner is a specially compounded rubber
that forms the inside of a tubeless tire. It inhibits loss of air pressure.
Belts or belt buffers are one or more rubber-coated layers of steel, polyester, nylon, Kevlar or
other materials running circumferentially around the tire under the tread.
The carcass or body plies are the main part in supporting the tension forces generated by tire air
pressure. The carcass is made of rubber-coated steel or other high strength cords tied to bead
bundles.
The sidewall provides lateral stability for the tire, protects the body plies, and helps to keep the
air from escaping from the tire. It may contain additional components to help increase the lateral
stability.
 The tread is the portion of the tire that comes in contact with the road. Tread designs vary widely
depending on the specific purpose of the tire. The tread is made from a mixture of different kinds
of natural and synthetic rubbers. The outer perimeter of a tire is also called the crown.
The tread groove is the space or area between two tread rows or blocks. The tread groove gives
the tire traction and is especially useful during rain or snow.

2.3 Types of Tires

2.3.1 Radial and Non-Radial Tires

Tires are divided in two classes: radial and non-radial, depending on the angle between carcass
metallic cords and the tire-plane.

Figure 1.5: (a) radial tire interior components and arrangement, (b) non-radial tires interior
components and arrangement

The radial tire is constructed with reinforcing steel cable belts that are assembled in parallel and run
side to side, from one bead to another bead at an angle of 90 deg to the circumferential centerline of
the tire. This makes the tire more flexible radially, which reduces rolling resistance and improves
cornering capability.

The non-radial tires are also called bias-ply and cross-ply tires. The plies are layered diagonal from
one bead to the other bead at about a 30 deg angle, although any other angles may also be applied.
One ply is set on a bias in one direction as succeeding plies are set alternately in opposing directions
as they cross each other. The ends of the plies are wrapped around the bead wires, anchoring them to
the rim of the wheel.
The most important difference in the dynamics of radial and non-radial tires is their different ground
sticking behavior when a lateral force is applied on the wheel. The radial tire, flexes mostly in the
sidewall and keeps the tread flat on the road. The bias-ply tire has less contact with the road as both
tread and sidewalls distort under a lateral load.

Figure 1.6: Ground-sticking behavior of radial and non-radial tires in the presence of a lateral
force.

The radial arrangement of carcass in a radial tire allows the tread and sidewall act independently. The
sidewall flexes more easily under the weight of the vehicle. So, more vertical deflection is achieved
with radial tires. As the sidewall flexes under the load, the belts hold the tread firmly and evenly on
the ground and reduces tread scrub. In a cornering maneuver, the independent action of the tread and
sidewalls keeps the tread flat on the road. This allows the tire to hold its path. Radial tires are the
preferred tire in most applications today.

2.3.2 Tubeless and tube-type tire construction

A tubeless tire is similar in construction to a tube-type tire, except that a thin layer of air and moisture-
resistant rubber is used on the inside of the tubeless tire from bead to bead to obtain an internal seal
of the casing. This eliminates the need for a tube and flap. Both tires, in equivalent sizes, can carry
the same load at the same inflation pressure.

2.4 Tread
The tread pattern is made up of tread lugs and tread voids. The lugs are the sections of rubber that
make contact with the road and voids are the spaces that are located between the lugs. Lugs are also
called slots or blocks, and voids are also called grooves. The tire tread pattern of block-groove
configurations affects the tire’s traction and noise level. Wide and straight grooves running
circumferentially have a lower noise level and high lateral friction. More lateral grooves running
from side-to-side increase traction and noise levels.
 Figure 1.7: A sample of tire tread to show lugs and voids

Tires need both circumferential and lateral grooves. The water on the road is compressed into the
grooves by the vehicle’s weight and is evacuated from the tire print region, providing better traction
at the tire print contact. On a dry road, the tire treads reduce grip because they reduce the contact
area between the rubber and the road. This is the reason for using treadless or slick tires at smooth
and dry race tracks.

The mud-terrain tire pattern is characterized by large lugs and large voids. The large lugs provide
large bites in poor traction conditions and the large voids allow the tire to clean itself by releasing
and expelling the mud and dirt. The all-terrain tire pattern is characterized by smaller voids and lugs
when compared to the mud terrain tire. A denser pattern of lugs and smaller voids make all-terrain
tires quieter on the street.

2.4.1 Hydroplaning

Hydroplaning is sliding of a tire on a film of water. Hydroplaning can occur when a car drives through
standing water and the water cannot totally escape out from under the tire. This causes the tire to lift
off the ground and slide on the water. The hydroplaning tire will have little traction and therefore, the
car will not obey the driver’s command. Deep grooves running from the center front edge of the
tireprint to the corners of the back edges, along with a wide central channel help water to escape from
under the tire.
 2.4.2 Tireprint

The contact area between a tire and the road is called the tireprint. The tireprint is also called contact
patch, contact region, or tire footprint. At any point of a tireprint, the normal and friction forces are
transmitted between the road and tire. The effect of the contact forces can be described by a resulting
force system including force and torque vectors applied at the center of the tireprint.

The area of the tireprint is inversely proportional to the tire pressure. Lowering the tire pressure is a
technique used for off-road vehicles in sandy, muddy, or snowy areas. Decreasing the tire pressure
giving better traction in low friction conditions. Low tire pressure increases fuel consumption, tire
wear, and tire temperature.

2.5 Wheel Hop, Wheel Wobble and Wheel Shimmy

2.5.1 Wheel Hop

Wheel hop or tire hop refers to the unusual and violent movement of tires within the tire wells. Under
normal circumstances, it is perfectly normal for tires to display some movement since they have to
absorb imperfections from the road, however, in the case of tire/wheel hop their motion becomes so
erratic that it sends intense vibrations throughout the car.

The main cause of wheel hop is an imperfect or improper geometry of suspension and tires. A normal
suspension setup and tires work perfectly fine for an average car; however, things dramatically
change when normal suspension and tires are subjected to increased power output. Stock suspension
bushings and joints are not designed to handle a huge amount of power that is delivered to the wheels
via a tuned engine, therefore, they start deflecting the transitional forces back to the tires & other
parts.
2.5.2 Wheel wobble

It is an oscillation of the front wheels of a vehicle caused by a defect in the steering gear,
unbalanced wheels etc. Wobbling wheels are bad signs on any car. If the wobble can be felt through
the steering wheel and you're having trouble keeping your car pointed straight, the issue is even more
serious. Wobbling wheels aren't just caused by misaligned suspension, though. Here are several other
reasons that can cause this to occur. Some of these are:

✓ Misaligned suspension: when your car's wheel alignment is off, you end up struggling with
the steering wheel to keep the car on a straight course.
✓ Damaged suspension: damage to suspension components is harder to address. Depending on
the type of front suspension, some or all the suspension arms could be bent or mountings
could be damaged.
 ✓ Unbalanced wheels: unbalanced wheels are also one of the main causes of wobbling wheels.

2.5.3 Wheel shimmy

Shimmy is a violent and possibly dangerous vibration that may occur with front wheels of an
automobile. To sustain the unstable shimmy oscillation, energy must be transmitted from the road to
the wheel. One of the ways of initiating the shimmy can be the application of wheel unbalance.

Wheel shimmy can be caused by one or more problems, including:

✓ Tires: the most common reason is out-of-balance tires. With this issue you won’t get any
shakes at lower speeds, but they will start becoming more and more noticeable the faster you
drive. Make sure all four tires are properly inflated. A deflated tire can send shakes through
the steering wheel too.
✓ Wheel Areas: If it’s not the tires, your next go-to part should be the wheels. Start by doing a
physical inspection looking carefully for any wheel or rim damage and checking the wheel
bearings.
✓ Axle: If your car has been involved in an accident recently and you just started noticing
vibrations, start looking at axle issues as it’s very likely got bent or damaged. The shakes will
increase as the speed rises, but they will be present even at lower speeds.

2.6 Sprung Mass Frequency (Suspension Frequency)

Sprung mass (or sprung weight), is the portion of the vehicle's total mass that is supported by the
suspension, including in most application half of the weight of the suspension itself. Whereas,
unsprung weight (or unsprung mass) is the mass of the suspension, wheels or tracks (as applicable),
and other components directly connected to them, rather than supported by the suspension. The larger
the ratio of sprung mass to unsprung mass, the less the body and vehicle occupants are affected by
bumps, dips, and other surface imperfections.
 2.6.1 Natural Frequency
Every (elastic) object, material, etc. has a certain speed of oscillation that will occur naturally when
there are zero outside forces or damping applied. This natural vibration occurs only at a certain
frequency, known as the natural frequency. Natural frequency, also known as eigen frequency, is the
frequency at which a system tends to oscillate in the absence of any driving or damping force.

If the oscillating system is driven by an external force at the frequency at which the amplitude of its
motion is greatest (close to a natural frequency of the system), this frequency is called resonant
frequency. This situation is very undesirable because the life of the spring can be reduced as excessive
internal stresses can result.

2.6.2 Suspension Frequency

Suspension frequency is how fast the suspension travels up and then back down to the same point
when you drive over a bump. If cars did not have shocks/dampers, the springs would continue to
bounce up and down at this rate for quite some time. By examining the suspension frequency, it is
possible to predict the handling characteristics of the suspension. To calculate suspension frequency
for an individual corner, you need mass and spring rate:
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑲
(𝟐𝝅)√𝒎

Where, f is suspension frequency (natural frequency) [Hz], K is the spring rate [N/m] and m
is the sprung mass [kg]
When using these formulas, it is important to take Mass as the total sprung mass for the corner being
calculated. That is, the axle weight divided by two, minus an estimated or measured unsprung mass
for that corner (things like wheels, tires, brakes, control arms, suspension components etc. all
contribute to unsprung mass. Anything that is not supported by the springs).

To properly design a suspension for a car, the suspension natural frequencies is used as a starting
point for picking wheel rates and spring rates. Common suspension frequencies:

✓ 1.0 Hz: Passenger cars

✓ 1.25 to 1.75 Hz: Sports cars
✓ 2.0 to 2.5 Hz: Autocross and racecars with low downforce
✓ 2.5+ Hz: High downforce racecars
✓ 1.45 Hz: Subaru BRZ (front and rear)
2.7 Choice of suspension spring rate
Spring rate, also called deflection rate, is a value that reflects how much weight it takes to compress
a spring a certain amount. The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined as the load
required per unit deflection of the spring.

✓ A constant-rate spring continues to compress at the same rate throughout its complete range
of deflection.
✓ A variable-rate spring may compress one inch under a 100N load, but only compress an
additional half an inch under a 200N load.

2.7.1 Spring Rate Correction for Angle Mounting

If your spring is mounted at an angle, it is must to consider that in your spring calculations. Measure
the angle of the spring from vertical (A) in degrees. Use the examples provided on this page or the
formula below to determine the Angle Correction Factor (ACF).

The greater the installed angle, the stiffer the spring rate must be to support the same weight. First,
determine the spring needed for the application if the spring is installed straight up. Then, to
compensate for installations at different angles, use the chart above.
Example:
Straight Mounted Spring = 200N.
Spring Mounted at 30° = 200/0.87 = 230N
The 230N represent the spring rate needed when mounted at a 30° angle to equal the desired spring
rate of 200N when standing straight up.

2.7.2 Choice of Spring Rate

✓ For independent and dependent suspension

D1 = The distance from the pivot point of the a-arm to the mounting point of the spring/shock.
D2 = The distance from the pivot point of the a-arm to the center of the ball joint.
Divide D1 by D2 to calculate the force ratio (Fr).
Force Ratio (Fr) = D1/D2
Weigh your car to determine the weight on the wheels (W). Divide the weight on the wheel by Fr to
determine the force required at the spring (Sf).
W/Fr=Sf
If your spring is mounted at an angle you will need to consider that in your spring calculations.
Measure the angle (A) of your spring from vertical in degrees. Use the table above to determine your
Angle Correction Factor (ACF). Now divide the Spring Force (Sf) from the earlier calculation by the
Angle Correction Factor (ACF) to get the Adjusted Spring Force (ASf).
Sf/ACF=ASf
The required Adjusted Spring Force (ASf) can now be used to select the proper spring rate for your
application. Springs typically be compressed 25-30% of the free length when supporting the weight
of the vehicle. Drag race cars will normally use a lighter rate spring (about 30%) to promote weight
transfer while a street car will use a firmer rate spring (about 25%).

Spring Rate = ASf/ (spring free length x 0.25)

Note: Spring rate calculations for solid axle suspension are the same as above except the Force Ratio
(Fr) = 1.

Exercise

1. Tire height and diameter. Find the tire height (hT) and diameter (D) for the following tires.

(a) 480/80R46 155A8

(b) P 215/65R15 96H

2. Increase 1 in to the diameter of the rim of the following tires and find a proper tire for the new
rim.
P 215/65R15 96H
P 215/60R15 96H

3. A model of Porsche 911 turbo uses the following tires. Determine and compare hT, and D for the
front and rear tires.
Front: 235/35ZR19
Rear: 305/30ZR19

4. A model of Porsche Cayenne turbo is an all-wheel-drive that uses the following tire.
255/55R18
What is the angular velocity of its tires when it is moving at the top speed 171 mi/ h ≈ 275km/ h?

5. A model of Ferrari is a rear-wheel-drive sport car that uses the following tires.
Front: 255/35ZR20
Rear: 335/30ZR20
What is the angular velocity of its tires when it is moving at the top speed of 362km/h?

6. A model of Mercedes-Benz uses the following tires.

Front: 255/35R19
Rear: 295/30R19
(a) What is the speed of this car if its rear tires are turning at ω = 2000 rpm. (b) At that speed,
what would be the angular velocity of the front tires?
7. A vehicle that weight 1400kg has an independent suspension system. Select the right spring rate
for the spring that has a freelength of 300mm and mounted at the middle of the control arm.
Unsprung weight of the vehicle is 120kg.
8. Based on the data given on question number 7, find the spring rate if the suspension system is
solid axle and the spring is mounted at 400.o