EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Exogenic Process

Earth's surface provides a harsh environment for rocks. Most rocks originate under much higher
temperatures and pressures and in very different chemical settings than those found at the earth's
surface. Thus, surface and near-surface conditions of comparatively low temperature, low pressure, and
extensive contact with water cause the rocks to undergo the varying amount of disintegration and
decomposition. Rocks weakened and broken by weathering become susceptible to other exogenic
processes. Together, weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition represent a chain or continuum
of processes that begins with the breakdown of rocks Exogenic processes include geological phenomena
and processes that originate externally to the Earth's surface. They are genetically related to the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, and therefore to processes of weathering, erosion,
transportation, deposition, denudation, etc. Exogenic factors and processes could also have sources
outside the Earth, for instance under the influence of the Sun, Moon, etc. The above-mentioned
processes constitute essential landform-shaping factors.

Exogenic Processes or Denudation

The processes which occur on the earth's surface due to the influence of exogenic forces are called
exogenic processes or exogenic geomorphic processes. Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and
deposition are the main exogenic processes. All the exogenic processes are covered under a general
term- denudation, which means strip off or uncover. The elements of nature capable of doing these
exogenic processes are termed geomorphic agents (or exogenic geomorphic agents). E.g. the wind,
water, waves, etc. Note: A process is a force applied on earth materials affecting the same. An agent is a
mobile medium (like running water, moving ice, winds, waves, etc) that removes, transport, and deposits
earth materials. Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents especially exogenic, unless stated
separately, are the same. Gravity and gradients are the two things that make these agents mobile. All the
movements either with in the earth or on the surface of the earth occur due to gradients, from higher
levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure, etc. The exogenic forces derive their energy
from the atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from the sun and also the gradient created by
tectonic factors. We have already discussed in previous articles that slopes on the earth's surface are
mainly created by tectonic factors or earth movements due to endogenic forces. We know that force
applied per unit area is called stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling. The gravitational
force acts upon all earth materials having a sloping surface and tends to produce movement of matter in
the down-slope direction. This creates stress and induces deformation to the particles.

A. WEATHERING
Weathering is defined as the in-situ breaking down of rock, eventually transforming it into
sediments or the action of elements of weather and climate over earth material. Weathering can
also be defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through the
actions of various elements of weather and climate. When rocks undergo weathering, some
minerals are removed through chemical physical leaching by groundwater, and thereby the
concentration of remaining (valuable) minerals increases. Weathering can be classified as -
physical, chemical, and biological. Classification of Weathering A. Physical/Mechanical
Weathering Physical weathering is the physical breakdown of rock into unconnected grains or
chunks without changing its composition. Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend
on some applied forces. The applied forces could be (i) gravitational forces such as overburden
pressure, load, and shearing stress; (ii) expansion force due to temperature changes, crystal
 growth, or animal activity; (iii) water pressure controlled by wetting and drying cycles. Most
physical weathering are caused by thermal expansion and pressure.

Types of Physical Weathering

1. Unloading and Expansion

- Unloading describes the removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes
vertical pressure release. Thus, the upper layers of the remaining rock expand to produce
disintegration of rock masses. Fractures will develop roughly parallel to the ground surface. In
areas of curved ground surfaces, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets or
exfoliated slabs.

- Exfoliation is a result but not a process. Flaking off of more or less curved sheets of shells
from over rocks or bedrocks results in smooth and rounded surfaces. So, unloading and
expansion create large and smooth rounded domes called exfoliation domes.

- Exfoliation describes the splitting of intrusive rocks into onion-like sheets parallel to the
surface.

2. Temperature Changes and Expansion:

- With rising in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes against its neighbor and as the
temperature falls, a corresponding contraction takes place.

- Due to differential heating and the resulting expansion and contraction of surface layers and
their subsequent exfoliation from the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces in rocks. In
rock-like granites, smooth-surfaced and rounded small to big boulders called tors form due to
such exfoliation.

o Thermal Expansion occurs when a rock is exposed to high temperatures such as a

forest fire, its outer layer expands due to baking.

3. Freezing, Thawing, and Frost Wedging

- Cycles of freezing and thawing (the weather becomes warmer and causes snow and ice to
melt) cause frost weathering.

- It is most effective at high elevations in mid-latitude where freezing and melting are often
repeated. Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.

- The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks, and small intergranular fractures to become
wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.

o Frost Wedging In high-altitude regions, water inside the fracture of rocks experience
freezing or thawing, when it freezes, it causes the joints to expand and grow, causing
pieces of rocks to detach.
 4. Salt Weathering
- Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration, and crystallization. Many salts like
calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and barium have a tendency to expand.

- The expansion depends on temperature and thermal properties. High temperature ranges
between 30-50 0 C of surface temperatures in desert favors such salt expansions. Salt
crystallization is the most effective of all salt weathering processes.

- It is favored in areas of alternative wetting and drying conditions.

- When the salt crystallizes, it pushes apart the surrounding grains and weakens the rock,
causing it to disintegrate when exposed to wind or rain.

B. Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering can be due to solution, carbonation, hydration or oxidation/reduction. Occurs when
there are chemical changes in at least some of the composition of the rock.

Types of Chemical Weathering

1. Solution
- When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved content is
called a solution. This process involves the removal of solids in solution and depends upon
the solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids. When coming into contact with water, many
solids disintegrate and mix up as a suspension in water. Soluble rock-forming minerals like
nitrates, sulfates, potassium, etc. are affected by this process. This kind of Minerals like
calcium carbonate and magnesium bicarbonate present in limestone are soluble in water
containing carbonic acid (formed with the addition of carbon dioxide in water) and are carried
away in the water as a solution. Common salt is also a rock-forming mineral and is
susceptible to this process of solution

2. Carbonation
- Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
process helping to break down feldspar and carbonate minerals. Carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid,
Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are
removed in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.

3. Hydration
- Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock. The process is
reversible and long. continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may
 lead to their disintegration. For example, calcium sulfate takes in water and turns to gypsum,
which is more unstable than calcium sulfate.

4. Oxidation and Reduction

- In weathering, a oxidation means combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
hydroxides. Minerals most commonly involved in this are iron, manganese, sulfur, etc. The
red color of the iron upon oxidation turns brown and yellow. In this process of oxidation, rock
breakdown occurs due to the disturbance caused by the addition of oxygen. When oxidized
minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction takes place.
-

C. Biological weathering

This kind of weathering is caused by several biological activities like the growth or movements of
organisms. They also bring conditions for physical or chemical weathering. Grazing of animals, plowing
by human beings, etc. are examples of biological weathering. Root wedging are joints that expand when
plants growing on its surface pry it to open.

B. MASS WASTING
These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slope under the direct influence of
gravity. Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over unweathered
slopes. Usual geographic agents like running water, glaciers, wind, waves, etc do not have much
role to play in mass movements, and it is gravity, which is the main driving force. Mass
movements are classified into slow movements and rapid movements. Mass wasting also
describes the downslope movement of rock, soil, and ice due to gravity. This natural hazard can
cause damage to life and property.

Types of Mass Wasting

1. Slow Movements

A) Creep

It occurs on moderately steep. soil-covered slopes (doesn't need to be lubricated with water as in
solifluction). The movement is extremely slow and imperceptible except through extended observation.
We might notice that some of the electric posts in our region which are posted in sloppy areas deviated
from their horizontal linearity. This is an effect of creep.

B) Solifluction

It is the process of slow downslope flowing of soil mass or fine-grained rock debris saturated or lubricated
with water. It can be said as a type of creep with lubricated water influences the movement. It mainly
occurs in permafrost regions as the layers of groundwater are occupied in between permanently frozen
soil and rocks.

2. Rapid Movements

A) Earthflow

It describes the movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low angle terraces or
hillsides is called earthflow

B) Mudflow

In the absence of vegetation and cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered materials get
saturated with water and either slow or rapidly flow down along definite channels is called a mudflow.

C) Debris Avalanche

It is more in humid regions with or without vegetation. It occurs in narrow tracks on steep slopes and is
similar to snow avalanches.

D) Landslides

In landslides, the materials involved are relatively dry irrespective of the above said rapid mass
movements. Landslides can be classified into a slump, debris slide, rockslide, etc.

✓ Slump: It is a type of landslide in which the slipping of several units of rock debris occurs with a
backward rotation with respect to the slope over which the movement takes place.

✓ Debris slide: In this type of landslide, there is no backward rotation. The fall is almost vertical.

✓ Rockslide: It is nothing but the slide of individual rock masses.

C. EROSION

Clear IAS Erosion describes the separation and removal of weathered and unweathered rocks and soil
from its substrate due to gravity or transporting agents like wind, ice, or water. Erosion is the acquisition
and transportation of rock debris by geomorphic agents like running water, the wind, waves, etc. Though
weathering aids erosion, it is not a pre-condition for erosion to takes place. (i.e., erosion can take place in
unweathered conditions also)

TYPES OF EROSION

WAYS SEDIMENTS MOVE .

TRACTION: rolling or dragging of large grains aided by the push of smaller grains.
SALTATION: bouncing of sand grains as they picked up, carried along, and dropped repeatedly

SUSPENSION: Movement of fine particles like silt and clay.

SOLUTION: Movement of soluble minerals (salt)

D. DEPOSITION

Deposition is the process in which sediments settle out of the transporting medium. Deposition is a
consequence of erosion. The erosional agents lose their velocity and energy on gentle slopes and
materials carried by them start to settle themselves. Note: Deposition is not the work of any agents, it is
just the result of erosion.

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENT

A sedimentary environment is a specific depositional setting of a particular sedimentary rock and is

unique in terms of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.

a. GLACIAL ENVIRONMENT
- refers to the areas where glaciers and ice sheets are found such as in high altitude mountains
and polar regions

b. MOUNTAIN STREAM ENVIRONMENT

- turbulent streams can carry large sediments like boulders and cobbles during flood forming
thick gravel and boulder layers.

C. DESERT ENVIRONMENT
- wind carries sand and silt materials and when deposited, well-sorted sand produces sand
dunes while the accumulation of silt forms a loess deposit.

c. LAKE(LACUSTRINE) ENVIRONMENT
- streams carrying sediments deposit coarse sediments on lake margins, only silt and clay are
deposited from suspension in deeper parts of the lake.

d. RIVER(FLUVIAL) ENVIRONMENT
- in flat areas, rivers are slow-moving and commonly carry an assortment of pebbles, sand, silt,
and mud.

e. DELTA ENVIRONMENT
- when a river enters the sea, it empties its load in a delta that extends to the shallow coastal
area.

f. BEACH ENVIRONMENT
 - tidal currents transport sand along the coastline. The waves winnow out the finer sediments,
leaving only well-sorted and well-rounded sand grains that form ripples.
-
g. SHALLOW MARINE ENVIRONMENT
- the mud and silt removed from the shoreline and river mouths are transported by tidal
currents and deposited in quieter water below the wave zone.

I. SHALLOW WATER CARBONATE ENVIRONMENT

- the supply of sediments is limited, marine organisms like coral reefs develop where the water
is fairly warm, clear, and full of nutrients.

J. DEEP MARINE ENVIRONMENT

- slope failures from the steep slopes of submarine canyons generate submarine landslides which creates
sediments of varying sizes.